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PUTNAM'S HOME CYOLOPEDIA. ^, i ' "'"
HAND-BOOK
OF
ClillONOLOGY AND HISTORY.
(
A DIGTIOKAEY OF DATES:
WITH TABULAR VIEWS. OF GENERAL IIISTOKY, AND A
HISTORICAL CHART.
EDITED BY ^ /^ ^ 7
GEORGE p. PUTNAM.
%\ti\ Eg&itioiu
NEW-YORK :
GEORCIE P. PUTNAM.
1853.
THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY
570482
ASTOti, LENOX AND
TaJ>£N FOUNDATION'S.
Entkkkd, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by
Gkorgp: p. Putnam, *
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for tho Soutlicrii District
of New- York.
John F. Trow,
Printer and Stereotyper^
49, 51 and 53 Ann-st., N. Y.
PREFACE.
While revising a chroiiologicul inanuaL in compiling which I had^
at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found
material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A.
Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford
Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the
comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn.f has been
incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United
States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations
to the present year.
The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had
cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating
them with the more recent Avorks, that some slight additions only
were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for
the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer-
ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent
reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ;
and showing also what was going on at the same time in different
countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear,
many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they
are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume.
To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo-
rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while
the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and
* Ckronclogy — An Index to Universal History. (S;c. 12mo. Leavitt, Ncw-
Vork, 1833. The volume has been long: out of print.
t Fourth e4it. 8vo. Lond.. 1847. That work needs no praise here.
others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they
are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason
that they contain too miich for ordinary purposes; their very elaborate-
ness serves to puzzle and to mystify.
What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges-
tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the
governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to
recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and
to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory.
The alpliabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more
full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the ,
whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction-
ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the
largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible
compass.
There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names
and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances
the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not
numerous or important.
The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute,
it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously
useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it
the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will
show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per-
sons lived during the life-time of that individual.
It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That
such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be
supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all
reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the
World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in
Politics and Government. G. P. P.
5/ ,<j5!'«j*y'' jrsp-i?^-?
CONTENTS,
TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY,
IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS.
1. ANCIENT HISTORY.
Period I.— The Antediluvian (IG5G years) ... .8
Period II.— Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).— The Deluge lo Abraham 4
Period III.— The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (-130 years).— Abraham to Mosea . . 6
Period IV,— The Mosaic or Theocratic (390 years).— Moses to Saul . . 8
Period V.— The Monarchical (489 years).— Saul to Cyrus . . . .14
Period \T. — The Persian (322 years).— Cyrus to Alexander ... 21
Period VII.— The Grecian (184 years).— Alexander to the Fall of Greece . . 26
Period VIII.— The Roman (146 years),— Fall of Greece to tlie Christian Era , 38
II. MODERN HISTORY.
Period I.— (30G years).— From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine . . 48
Period II. — (170 years.) — Constantine to Odoacer . . . . 58
Period III.— (14G years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet ..... 62
Period IV.— (178 years.)— Mahomet to Charlemagne ... 68
Period V.— (2GG years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . .72
Period VI. — (233 years.) — William the Conqueror to Othman I, . . 86
Period VII.— 154 year.s.)—Othnian to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . . 102
Period VIII.— (145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes . 112
Period IX.— (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden . 122
Period X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon • • 134
Period XI.— (35 years.)— Napoleon to tlie year 1850 , . . ... .146
II. DICTIONARY OF DATES 145
III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY 609
IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c. 648
V BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 667
EXPLANxiTION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY,
Representing, in a Chronological Series^ the RL'^e, Revolutions, and Fall f the
'principal Empires of the World.
ON THE PLAN OF DR. J. PRIESTLEY.
It is necessary to notice, tliat the space allotted .0 each country is rather according toils relative
political importance, than to its geographical extent.
The spaces between the -yej-ZicaHines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen-
tury or lUO years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are
expressed at the end of the chart.
By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at
the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming in
Greece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy-
rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their
history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a
greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued
by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under
barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the Afiican
provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek-
Empire fallen under the Turks ; the Tartars powerful in Asia : many of the modern states of
Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c.
On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking
along the chart horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that
of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls
in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively.— The
Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the .Judges about 1300; under
Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; theij are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians ;
restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac-
cabees, 150 ; conquered by the Romans, 63 ; by the Saracens, a. d. 622 ; afterwards by the cru-
saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, s\iccessive]y.— England subdued by the Romans in the first cen-
tury; relinquished by them, a.d. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the
Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280; with
Scotland, 1600.— J/a/y in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300—200
B. c. to 480 a. d., then by the Ilerulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ;— in modern
times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about
1800, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the
Pope, and the King of Naples.
" They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to
excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are
marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in
what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part ol
their species ! "—Priestley.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PART I.
TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY,
I. Ancient Chronology— from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years.
I. Modern Chronology— from the Birth of Christ to the present time— 1850 year*
I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOaY.
DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS.
From the Creation, 4004
to the Deluge, 2348..
From the Deluge, 2348
to the Call of Abraham, 1921 . .
From the Call of Abraham, 1921
to the Exode from Egypt, 1491 . .
From the Exode, 1491
to the Kingdom of Saul, 1095 . .
From Saul, 1095
to the Captivity of Israel, 588 . .
From the Captivity, 588
to Alexander the Great, 330.
From Alexander, 330
to the Subj ugation of Greece, 146 . ,
From the Subjugation of Greece, 146
to the Birth of Christ, 0 . .
, 1656 years The Antediluvian Period,
, 427 years The Dispersion Period,
. 430 years The Patriarchal Period.
. 396 years The Theocratic Period.
. , 507 years The Monarchical Period,
.. 258 years The Persian Period.
, . 184 years The Grecian Period*
. . 146 years The Roman Period.
From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned B. o.-
BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. p.-— the Year of our Lord.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
FIRST PERIOD-— (iJ^ Antecliluvian)-^i656 years.
B. C
4004
3875
3874
3769
3679
3609
a544
3382
3317
3130
3074
3017
2948
2468
THE CREATION OF THE WORLD —(ITebrew Pentateuch.) [Hales places it 5411 b. c*
The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour,
The birth of Cam, the tiist-born of woman— a husbandman.
The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd.
Seth bom, the third son o f Adam.
Enos bom.
Cainan born.
Mahalaleel born.
Jared "
Enoch "
Methuselah " (lived 969 years.)
Lamech "
Death of Adam, aged 930 years.
Enoch translated.
Noah born.
The building of the Ark commenced.
THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154
B. C]
Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t
Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He in-
troduces the use of weights and measures.— Jo-
sephus. Tytler.
Irad:
Mehujael.
Methusael.
Lamech— polygamy introduced.
Jabal.
The first to
buildaTen^
for habita-
tion, and to
use cattle for
purposes of
husbandly.
Jubal.
He invent-
ed the Harp
and the Or-
gan^ox wind
and stringed
instruments
of music.
Tubal-cain.
He discov-
ed the mode
of preparing
and using
iron, brass,
and other
Metals.
Naamah,
She intro-
duced the
artsof^^jpin-
ning and
Weating.
* See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa-
maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c, 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the
Talmudists, 53i4: ; Scaliger, 3950; Petavius, 398i ; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enu-
merates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difierence between the latest and remotest
date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted
as the most generally received standard.
t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column.--They
are however contemporary with those in the other column.
Remarks.— The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed
since the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing
ia known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or
paint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their
adaptation to the i»e of man, other arts, ard a considerable advance in science and the mechanical
powers.
113-The Tabular Views arb continubd across two paobs At ti
samb time.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
SECOND l^EniOJ)-~-{Dispersion of Mankina.y^
SACRED HISTORY.
PbOORBSS of SOOIBTT AND THB ARTS.
2317 Wine made by ^oah from the grape.
2M7
2m
Bricks made, and cement used to unite them.
Ck>nfusion of languages at Babel.
Aatnnomieal obsenrations begun at Babylon.
2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed
through the earth: those of Shem probably
in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of J^phet in
Europe.
2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend*
ants of Ham.
2247. The buildmg of Babel.*
2ai5. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of
Cush, and Grandson of Ham.
NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of
Shem.
8122
2100
2095
1906
AthotM (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics.
Sculpture and. Painting employed to com-
memorate the exploits of Osymandyas.
Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science
of Geometry begini to be cultivated.
Ching Hoi^ teaches the Chinese the art of
JIusbanary, and the method of making
Bread from wheat, and wine from rice.
1996. Abraham bom.
192L The call of Abraham.
* The chronoli^y here adopted is that of th« Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan plae«t
Btbrt 631 years after the deluge.
THE WORLD^S PROORSSP.
427 years— 'The Deluge to Abraham.
PROFANE HISTORY.— (/n this period traditional and uncertain.)
Asia.
2207, CHINA. The first imperial
dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi
(who IS perhaps Noah him-
self) is mentioned as the first
Chinese monarch.
2124
2069
2059
2017
Bel us reigns in BABYLON.—
[Some suppose Belus to be
the Nimrod of Scripture. If
BO, there is a discrepancy of
121 years between the sacred
and profane chronologies.]
The origin of the kingdoms
of Babylon and Nineveh, and
of the Assyrian empire, is
variously stated by the chron-
_,__: — ggg Sacred Hisl.j
r<iinus, son of Belus, reigns in
'Nineveh.
He establishes the ASSYRIAN
EMPIRE.
Semiramis enlarges and embel
li^es Babylon, and makes it
the seat of empire. [By others
placed 2107 b. c]
1975 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi-
opia, and India.
1937
The Arabs seize Nineveh. (1)
Africa.
2188. Misraim (Mones), the son
of Ham, builds Memphis, in
EGYPT, and begins the E-
gyptian monarchy.
2111. THEBES founded by
Busiris.
2100. Osymandyas, the first
warlike king, passes into
Asia, and conquers Bactria.
2085. Egypt conquered by the
shepherd kings of Phenicia,
who hold it 260 years.
1938. Lake Moeris constructed.
EUROPS.
2089. SICYON. the first king,
dom of GREECE, founded
by Egialus, or Inachus.
2048. A colony of PheniGians
land in Ireland. (1)
2042. Uranus arrives in Greece.
Revolt of the Titans
War of the Oiantft
THE WOKLD^S PROGRESS.
THIRD PERIOD— (TAe Abrahamic or Patriarchal.y
1020
J 991
IS22
PRoaRBSs OP Society and the Arts.
15S8
1532
1580
1534
1506
1497
1494
Gold and silver first mentioned as money.
Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas.
Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet.
SACRED HISTORY.
The Jews,
Atlas, the astronomer.
The chronology of the Arundelian marbles
begins.
The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele.
Dancing to music introduced by Curetes.
Book of Job written about this time.
The^w/e invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian.
Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams
and draws prognostics from omens.
Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry.
1921. Abraham called.
1920. —goes into Egypt.
1912. —delivers Lot from captivity, and re-
ceives the blessing of Melchizedec.
1909. Ishmael born.
1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed.
God reue w:^ his covenant with Abraham.
1896. Isaac born.
1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in
sacrifice.
1866. Isaac married.
1836. Jacob and Esau born.
1824. Abraham dies, aged 172.
1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel.
1739. His name changed to Israel.
1729. Joseph sold into Egypt.
1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh.
1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt.
1702. End of the seven years' famine.
1699, Death of Jacob.
1635. Death of Joseph.
1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt.
1574. Aaron born.
1571. Moses born.
1531. Moses flees into Midian.
1513. The supposed era of Job.
1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bush
at Horeb. and sends him to Egypt to deliver
the Israelites.
The Ten Plagues in Egypt.
Institution of the Passover.
The EXODUS of the Israelites from
Egypt.
THE WORLD*S PROGRESS.
Abraham to Moses, — (430 years.)
PROFANE m^TOYLY.—iStia fabulous or uncertain,^
Asia.
1766
China. The 2d Imperial dy-
. nasty begins.
1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt.
1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns
in Egypt.
EUROPB.
1856. Inachus, the PhenlciaB
plants a colony in ARGO&
1807. Phoroneus reigns in
Argos.
1764. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia.
1707. Apis, king of Argos.
1732. The Ogygean Deluge in
Attica.
1711. The city of Argos built
by Argus, the son of Niobe.
1710. A colony of Arcadians
emigrate into Italy imder
CEnotrus.— GSnotria after.
wards called Magna Grecia.
1641. Criasus succeeds his
father, Argus.
1556. ATHENS founded by
Cecrops.
1552. Triopas, king of Argos.
The kingdom divided, Poly-
caon reigning in Messenia.
1546. TROY founded by Sea-
mander.
1529. Deluge of Deucalion in
Thessaly.
1520. Connth founded.
1516. Sparta founded, and the
kingclom of Laconia, or La-
cedemon.
1507. The Areopagus establish-
ed hi Athens.
1506. Crotopas succeeds to th«
throne of Argos.
1504. Deucalion arrives In KU
tica.
The kmgdom of Messe.
nia commenced by Polycaon.
1493. THEBES in Bceotia,
founded by Cadmus, a Phe
nician, who introduces Iht
alphabet into Greece.
THE world's progress.
FOUETH FBB.lOD.—(The Mosaic or Theocratic)--
1490
1486
1453
1390
1366
1284
1263
1263
12^
taSA
PBOeBBBS OF SOOIBTT AND THB ARTS.
Crwikvry made by the Egyptians and Greeks.
Ericthonius introduces the first chariot.
The fabulous or traditionary Hermes- Tris-
megistus placed about this period.
Bftcchusi god of wine.
Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece.
Apollo, god of music and poetry.
BueUerB used in single combat invented by
Prastus and Acrisdus of Argos.
Eieuainian mysteries instituted by Eumol
pus.
Orphetis and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled
in music.
The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the
council of Amphictyons.
Jason leads the Ar^onautic expedition; the
firat naval expediuon on record.
MuscmSi a poet.
The ase, wedgty wimble and lever, also masts
and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of
Athens.
The game of Baekgammon invented by Pala-
m^lM of Greece.
SACRED HISTORY.
Thb Jsws.
1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt.
The law given at Mount Sinai.
1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram
1453. Aaron dies.
1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies.
1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua.
1443. Joshua dies.
1405. Othniel judges Israel.
1390. The tribe of Benjamin i Imogt ext.iict.
1343. Eglon, kine of Moab, enslaves Israel.
1325. Ehud kills^Eglon. and delivers Israel.
1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an
ox goad.
1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan.
1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan-
ites— Sisera killed by Jael.
1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes.
1249. Gideon, with 30(» men, defeats the Mi-
dianites.
1209. Abimelech judges Israel.
1206. Tola judges Israel.
1183. Jair, judge of Israel.
THE WORLD'3 progress.
396 years. — Moses to Said.
PROFANE HISTORY.-~(firft« uncertain^
Asia.
1480
1449
1418
1400
1374
1314
1260
1259
1252
1240
1225
1222
1220
1215
1194
1184
1183
1182
Dardanus, king of Troy, builds
Dardania.
Ericthonius reigns in Troy.
Cushanrishathaim, king of
Mesopotamia. (See /Scrip-
ture.)
Teucer, king of Troy.
Troas, king of Troy,
lius, son of Troas, founder of
Ilium.
Laomedon, kmg of Troy.
Phenicia ; TYRE' founded.
Second Assyrian Dynasty :
Mithreaus or Ninus II.
Troy taken by the Argonauts.
Hercules arrives in Phrygia.
Argon, a descendant of Hercu-
les, first king of LYDIA.
Priam, king of Troy.
Tautanas, king of Assyria.
The TROJAN WAR begins.
Troy taken, 408 years before
the Ist Olympiad.
Teutaeus, kmg of Assyria.
Trojans migrate into Italy.
Africa.
1491. Pharaoh and his army
drowned in the Red Sea.
1485. Egyptus reigns, and
gives name to the country.
EUBOPS.
1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt.
1233. Cart, age founded by the
Tyrians
Sthenelus reigns in Argov.
1474. Danaus usurps the kins'
dom of Argos.
1463. Damnonii ioTads Ire-
land.
1457. The kingdom of Mycene
begins under Perseus, late
king of Argos.
1453. Olympic games first ce*
lebrated at Elis.
1438. Pandion begins to reign
at Athens.
1400. Minos reigns in Crete.
1397. CORINTH becomeg a
kingdom under Sisyphus.
1383. Ceres arrives in Attica.
1376. The Isthmian games in-
stituted.
1356. Eleusinian mysteries in-
troduced.
1283. iBgeus reigns in Attica.
1266. (Edipusjking of Thebes.
1263. The Argonautic Ezpe*
dition.
1257. Theseus unites the cities
of Attica imder one gorem-
ment.
1243. The Arcadians conducted
by Evander into Itaiy.~Mu-
sseus, a poet.
1239. Latinus reigns in ItaljT
1225. First Theban War.—
. Euristhenes and Procles,
kings of Lacedemon.
1222. Hercules celebrates the
Olympic Games.
1216. War of the Epigonii, or
2d Theban War.
1213. Helen carried off by
Theseus, is recovered 1^
Castor and Pollux, and mu^
ries Meneiaus.
1204. Helen elopes with Paris.
1182. iEneas lands in Italy.
1176. Salamis founded by
Teucer.
1170. Epirus : Pyrrhus Neop^
tolemus.
10
THE world's progress.
Fourth Period. — (The Mosaic or Theocratic,)—
1115
1100
PR00IUSS8 OF SOCIBTY AND THB AETS.
Mariner's compass said to be known in
China. (1)
A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain-
ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out-
Bhe. (1)
SACRED HISTORY.
Thb Jbws.
1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and
Ammonites.— Samson born. —Eli judges a
portion of Israel.
1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and
becomes judge of a part of Israel.
1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistmes with the
jawbone of an ass.
1117. Death of Samson and Eli.
1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel.
1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer.
1095. Establishment of the HEBREW Ma
NARCHY.— Saul anointed king of Israel
THE WORLD S PROGigBSS.
396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul.
11
PROFANE laSTOKY.—iStm fabulous or uncertain.)
1141
1139
1122
1109
Temple of Ephesua burnt by
the Amazons.
Thinaaus, king of Assyria.
China :— 3d dynasty ;—Tchcoo.
Dercylus, king of Assyria.
Africa.
ElTROPB.
1152. Alba-Longa built by
Ascanius.
1124. JSoIian migration.
THEBES, the Capital of
Boeotia, founded.
1104. Return of the Heraclids.
—End of the kingdom oi
Mycene.
12
THE world's progress.
FIFTH PERIOD.— (TZm? Monarchical,}--
1015
PROOSaSB OF SOCISTT AND THE ArTS.
Blinoe gives his laws to CYete.
SACRED HISTORY.
The Jews.
1095. Saul, King of Israel.
1085. David bom.
1062. David kills Goliath.
1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron
over Judah ; lahbosheth reigning in Maha-
naim, over eleven tribes.
1048. Ishbosheth slain.
- over all Israel.
David made king
1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab-
ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to
the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on
the South, and Lebanon, on the North.
1036. Solomon born.
1023. Revolt and death of Absalom.
1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah.
1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of
David.
1016. David dies.
1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the
temple.
1004. DEDICATION
TEMPLE.
OF SOLOMON'S
1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con-
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India,
via Red Sea^and to the shores of the Atlan-
tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad-
mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and
other cities.
985. He is«educed into idolatry by his wives.
975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam.
Judah.
975. Rehoboam, king.
971. Shishak plimders
the temple.
958. Abijah, king.
955. Asa, king.
954.
953
Israel.
Jeroboam, king.
Nadab, king.
Baasha, king.
THE world's PROGKESS.
507 yean. — Bavl to Cyrus.
13
PROFANE HISTORY.
Asia.
1(M4
The Ionian emigrants settle
in Asia Minor.
Alliance between Solomon and
Hiram, king of Tyre.
SamoB built.
Shishak plunders Jerusalem.
Alliance between Solomon and
Pharaoh.
986. Utica built.
978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip-
ture, and supposed "
tris,) king of Egypt.
ElTKOPB.
1088. End of the kingdom or
Sicyon.
1070. Heremon. from Gallicia,
conquers Ireland.
1069. Codrus devotes himself
for Athens.
1060. Athens goremed by
Archons.
976. Capys
Longa.
reigns in Alb«
14
THE world's progress.
Fifth Period, — (The Monarchical.y
SAORED HISTORY.
B.C.
Proorsss of Soozbtt and thb Arts.
The Jbws.
JuDAH. Israel.
942. Asa defeats Ze-
rah, king of Ethio-
pia, witli a million
of men.
941. -—makes a league
with Benhadad, king
of Syria. 930. Elah, king.
929. Zimri, king.
Orari, king.
918. Aiiab, king.
037
Breastplates invented by Jason.
884
869
800
786
772
721
710
680
Horner^ 8 poems brought into Greece.
Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta.
Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of
Argos.
Prophecies of Jonah.
Carpets in use for tents.
The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels
with three banks of oars.
Sculpture first mentioned in profane history—
an Egyptian art.
The first eclipse of the m^on observed by the
Chaldeans at Babylon.
The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama
into India.
Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided,
12 months instead of 10 as before.
Augurs instituted bv Numa.
Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr-
teetis. and Evander^ poets.
Chess myented.
914. .lehoshaphat,
king.
898. .lehoshaphat a
sists Ahab.
894. War with Moab.
889, Jehoram, king.
907. Benhadad, king o(
Syria, besieges Sa-
'- maria. but is re-
pulsed.
897. Ahaziah, king.
896. Jehoram, king.
895. Elijah translated.
884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king.
Athaliah, queen ;
usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king.
878. Jehoash, king.
The Prophet Jo-
nah.
839. Amaziah, king.
810. Azariah, king.
758. Jotham^king.
742. Ahaz,kmg.
841. Jehoash, king;.
825. Jeroboam, king.
784. Interregnum,
773. Zachariah, king.
Shallum, king.
772. Menahem, king.
770. Pul invades Is
rael) and is bribec
to depart with 1001
talents.
762. Pekahiah, king.
759. Pekah, king.
Interregnum.
. Hoshea, king.
721. CAPTIVITY Ol
ISRAEL.
717. Hezekiah, kin^.
712. Sennacherib in-
vades Judah.
711. His army (185,-
000) destroyed by a
pestilence.
696. Manasseh, king.
THE world's progress.
15
507 years. — Saul to Cyrus, — (Continued.)
PROFANE HISTORY.
97iv Homer bom.
840 Jonah preaches to the Nine-
vites.
820 Arbaces, kmg of Assyna.—
Media revolts.
797 Ardyssus, 1st kmg of LYDIA.
771 Pul, king of Nineveh.
767 Sardanapalus, king of Nine-
veh.
Media subjected to Assyria.
761 Alyattes, king of Lydia.
747 ERA OF NABONAZZAR—
Assvrian empire destroyed.
— -Meles, king of Lydia.
744 Phamacea, king of Cappado.
cia.
736 Tiglath-Pile^r conquers Sy-
ria and part of Israel.
735 Candaules, king of Lydia.
721 Shalmanezer king of .Nine-
veh, takes Samaria, and car-
ries the Ten Tribes into
captivity.
713 Gyges usurps the throne of
Lydia.
717 iS'ennacAcrifi, king of Nineveh.
710 MEDIA becomes a kingdom
under Dejoces.
709 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces.
Babylon and Nineveh under
Esarhaddon.
Africa.
59. Dido arrives in Africa,
and builds Byrsa.
825. The dynasty of the Ta-
nites in. Egypt ; begins with
Peterbastes.
781. The dynasty of the Saites
in Egypt.
737. Sebacon invades Egypt.
935. Bacchus, king of Corinth
916. Calpetus, ling of Alba.
903. Tiberinus, king of Alba.
895. Tiberinus drowned in tha
river Albula. which is thence
called the Tiber.
864. Romulus, king of Alba
Longa.
845. Aventinus, king of Alba.
814. The kingdom of MACE-
DON founded by Caranus.
808. Procas, king of Alba.
794. Numitor, " "
794. Amulius, « «
Olam Fodla, king in Ire-
land. (1)
769. Syracuse founded by
Archias of Corinth.
753. BUILDING OF ROME
begun*
Catania founded by a co-
lony from Chalcis.
747. Union of Romans and
Sabines.
743. 1st Messinian War.
716. Romulus murdered by the
senators.
715. Numa Pompilius.
713. Gela in Sicuy founded.
703. Corcyra built by the Co-
rinthiare.
686. 2d Messinian War.
16
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Fifth Period, — (The Monarchical) —
PROaRBSS OF SOCIBTY AND THB ARTS.
SACRED HISTORY.
Thb Jbws.
661
640
610
606
601
594
691
Attempt to discover the primitive language of
mankind ; Interpreters instituted by Psam-
' meticus ; children educated in the language
and manners of Greece.
Se*McUaien'8 history of China be^ns.
The S/pfierical form qf the earth and the true
cause of lumur eclipses taught by Tholes^
"who discovers the electricity of amber.
Periander encourages learning at Corinth.
Draco frames his bloody code of laws at
Athens.
Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the
Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of
120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends
out a Phcenician fleet which, sailing through
the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the
third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus
circumnavigating Africa.
Se^phc. AlceRUSy Pittactis, BiiLs^ Chilo, Mj/-
80n^ Anachartns, JEsop, Hychis, Theognis^
SUsiehoruSj PhocyUaes, and Cadmus (of
Miletus), flourish at this time.
Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accom-
pliehea. — (See Asia.)
SoUm's legislation in Athens, supersedes that
of Dtaco.
The Pythian Games at Delphi.
677. Mana£»eh carried to Babylon, is afler-
wards reAored.
640. Ammon, king of Juc'iah.
641. Josiah, king of Judah.
Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh No-
cho.
609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and earrtod to
-- 'pt.
ehoiakim, king.
^^Jl!
606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by
Nebuchadnezzar.
598. Jehoiachin, kin^, reigns thrse months,
and is carried captive to Bah^^OA.
Zedekiah, king.
591. Ezekielhe^nauj prophesy kiCiaiiieaL,
588. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed.
JERUSALEM DESTRO YED—th^ tei>v
pie burnt.
Obadiah prophesies.
THE world's progress.
507 years. — Said to Cyrus. — (Continued.)
VI
PROFANE HISTORY.
Asia.
676
658
648
647
634
631
626
624
619
612
Ardysus n., king of Lydia.
Holofemes, Assyrian general.
Phraortes, king of Media.
Saracus, king of Babylon and
Nineveh.
Phraortes conquers Persia,
Armenia, &c.
Cyaxares, king of Media.
Sadyattes, king of Lydia.
Nabopolassar revolts from Sa-
racus.
The Scythians invade Lydia
and Media.
Alyattes II., king of Lydia.
Nineveh a second time destroy,
ed.
Nabopolassar, king of Baby-
lon.
606
604
601
699
696
Pharaoh-Necho defeated by
Nebuchadnezzar at Circe-
sium, on the Euphrates.
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba-
bylon.
Daniel interprets the king's
dream.
A solar eclipse predicted by
Thales — separates the Medes
and Lydians in battle. (iNTeio-
ton'8 Chron.,585.)
Birth of Cyrus.
Astyages of Media drives out
'ages of Mec
B Scythians.
Africa.
660. Psammeticus, king of
Egypt.— Memphis becomes
the capital of the kingdom.
610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of
Egypt.
600. Psammis, king of Egypt.
594. Pharaoh-Hophra, king of
Egypt.
EUROPB.
678. ArgsBus, 1st king of Ma-
cedon.
672. TuUus Hostilius, king ol
Rome.
668. Messina in Sicily founded.
665. Alba destroyed.
664. Sea fight betvreen the
Corinthians and Corcyreans.
658. BYZANTIUM founded.
640. Ancus Martiu8.--The port
of Ostia built.— The Latins
conquered by the Romans.—
Philip, 1st king of Mace-
don.
629. Periander rules at Co-
rinth.
616. Tarquinius Pnscus, king
of Rome.
602. ^ropus, king of Maco*
don, conquers Illyria.
594. Solon, Archoc of Athena
18
THE "WoELD's progress.
SIXTH TEniOJ).— (The Fersian.)--^
685
578
Proobbss op Socibtt.
Money coined dX Rome by Ser-
viua TuUius.
J.
662
635
527
Depoenus and Scyllis open a
Bchool of statuary at Athens.
Naucratea given to the Greeks
by Egypt as a factory.
Egypt possesses 20,000 inha-
bited cities.
JFHrat comedy acted at Athens
on a cart, by Susarion and
Dolon.
Dials ihvented by Anaximan-
der of Miletus.
Anaximenes, Cleobulus.
The Corinthian order of ar-
chitecture invented by Cali-
machus.
2!oroaster, the Persian Pliilo-
sopher.
iSimonides, Anacreon, poets.
Thespis performs the first
tragedy at Athens.
Learning encouraged at Ath
ens. — First public library
founded.
Confucius the Chinese philo-
sopher.
The Daric issued by Darius.
Jbws.
559. Handwriting on the wall
at Belshazzar's feast.
536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re-
turn of the Jews.
Joshua, Zerubbabel.
535. Rebuilding of the tem-
ple begins.
Zecnariah, Ilaggai.
516. Dedication of the second
temple.
682. Nebuchadnezzar inradei
Elam— takes Susa.
572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad-
nezzar.
569. Nebuchadnezzar losmg
his reason is dfeposed.
New Tyre foimded.
562. Croesus, king of Lydia.
Solon and iEsop at his court.
561. Evil-Merodach, ' king ol
Babylon.
559. Neriglissar or Belshazzai
killed in the ni^ht.
Cyaxares II. (Darius)
kin£ of Media.
Cyrus the Persian assists
him.
Asia Minor subjected to CroB
sus.
546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. —
Croesus made prisoner.—
The Lydian Kingdom end-
ed.
538. BABYLON TAKEN by
Cyrus.
536. PERSIAN EMPIRE
founded by CYRUS, com-
{tosed of Assyria, Media and
*ersia.
529. Cambyses, king of Per-
sia.
522. Darius HystaspeSf king
of Persia.
THE world's progress.
258 years, — Cyrus to Alexander the Great.
19
581
571
569
525
Egypt invaded by Nebuchad-
nezzar.
Apries taken prisoner, and
strangled in his palace.
Amasis, king — connection be-
tween Greece and Egypt.
Pythagoras visits Egypt.
Psammenitus, last kin^ of
Egypt.— Invasion of Cam-
byses, who defeats the
Egyptians at Pelusium, and
takes Memphis.
Egypt bboomes a Persian
Provincis.
Greece,
585. Death of Periander, tyrant
of Corinth.
582. Corinth becomes a repub-
lic.
560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Ath-
ens,
549. Temple of Apollo at
Delphi burnt by the Pisis-
517. Amyntas, king of Mace-
don,
539. The Phocians emigrate to
Gaul and build Massilia
(now Marseilles).
527. Pisistratus dies.
522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa-
mos.
521. Hippias and Hipparchus
reign in Athens.
510. The Pisistratidae expelled.
—Democracy estabfished at
Athens.— Statues erected to
Harmonius and Aristogiton,
leaders in the revolution.
Rome, bto.
678. Servius Tullius, king cf
Rome.
567. Conquest of the EtruriaiM
by Rome.
565. First census of Rome:
84,700 citizens.
534. Tarquinius Superbo*,
king of Rome,
530. Cadiz built by the Car-
thaginians (near the ancient
Tarahish).
»)
THE WOELB's FROGRESS.
Sixth Period.-— \The Persian,) —
Proorbss of^ Society.
Abolition of the Regal Govern-
ment, and estabJishment of
Republic at Rome.
fferaditus^ Theano^ Prota-
goras, Anaxagoraa^ philoso-
phers.—Corinno, poetess.
The Phamician letters carried
%o Ireland from Spain.
Pythagoras teaches the doc-
trine of celestial motions.
The temple of Minerva built.
The Etrurians excel in music,
the drama and architecture.
JEschylus, Pindar, poets.
Simonides, of Cos, obtains the
prize at Olympia, for teach-
mg a sysiem of Mnemonics,
which he had invented.
Empirics instituted by Acron,
of Agrigentum.
Sophocles, the tragic,
Plato, the comic poet.
and
Voyage of the Carthaginians
to Britctin for tin.
Tu« Jews.
483. Joachim, High Priest.
458. Esther.
457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem,
collects tlfe Jewish Scrip-
tures: and
453. —writes the Chronicles.
Asia.
508. Darius conquers India.
498. The .miians revolt from
Persia and burn Sardis.
491. Darius sends an army of
500,000 men into Greece.
487. Artabazes, king of Pon-
tus.
486, Xerxes, king of Persia.
481. The expedition of Xerxes
into Greece.
480. The family of Archean-
actes, from Mytilene, settle
in Bosphorus (now Circas-
sia.)
478. Death of Confucius.—
China distracted by interna
wars.
466. Persians defeated by sea
and land.
465. Xerxes assassinated.
464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima
nus,) king of PeiiBia.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
21
258 years. — Cyrus to Ahxander. — (Continued.)
Africa.
487
480
460
456
Egypt revolts— is subdued by
Xerxes.
Hdmilcar killed in battle.
Egypt, under Inarus, revolts
from Persia.
All Egypt reduced by Megaby-
8US.
Greecb.
505. Lacedemonian War.
504. Lemnos taken by Milti-
ades.
497. Alexander 1st, king of
Macedon.
Hippocrates, tyrant of
Gela.
491. Invasion of the Persians
under Daiis and Artapher-
nes.
490. Battle of MARATHON.
Re jd AND Italy.
509. Thj Tarquins expelled
from Rome.
Brutus and Collatinus
first Consuls of Rome.
507. Second census of Rome,
130,909 Citizens.
Tlie Capitol finished.— War
against the Tarquins and
their ally Porsenna.
498. Titus Lartlus, first Dicta-
tor.
Tribunes of the people.
496. Posthumius, Dictator.
491. Coriolanus banished.
488. Miltiades imprisoned.
483, Aristides banished.
480. Battle of ThermopylaB.
Athens burnt by Xerxes.
Battle of Salamis.
479. Mardonius a second time
takes Athens.
Defeat of the Persians at
Platea and Mycale on the
same day.
476. Themistocles rebuilds
Athens.— The Pirseus built.
470. Cimon son of Miltiades.—
Themistocles banished. —
The kingdom of the Odrysae
extends over the most of
Thrace.
466. The Persians twice de-
feated at the Eurymedon by
Cimon.
465. 3d Messinian War.
461. Ostracism of Cimon.—
Pericles rises to great
power.
459. Athens assumes to be the
head of Greece.
456. Cimon recalled.
488. At the request of his
mother. Coriolanus with-
draws tne Volsci from Rome.
485, Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse.
483, Quaestors appointed.
480. The Carthaginians de-
feated by Gelon.
479. Syracuse governed by
Hiero.
477. The 300 Fabii slain.
467. Thrasybulus succeeds
Hiero, and is expelled for
his cruelty.
Democracy in Syracuse.
461. Earthquake at Rome.
456. Cincinnatus Dictator.
THE world's progress.
The Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)^
B.O PaOOABSS OF SOCIBTY, BTC.
450
445
441
434
432
414
410
The Britons inflict punish-
ment of death by drowning
in a quagmire.
Herodotus reads his liistory m
the Athenian council.— ^m-
pedoclesj Parmenides, Aris-
tippus^ and Antisthenes,
Smloaophers.-~Phidias the
nest sculptor of antiquity.
— Euripides, tragic poet.
The Battering Ram invented
by Artemones.
Aristophanes, prince of an-
cient comedy.
Meton begins his lunar cycle.
Socrates, the greatest of hea-
then moralists.
Hippocrates, of Cos, the father
of medicine.
Thucydides, Ctesias, histo-
rians.
Democritus, the laughing phi-
losopher.
445. Walls of Jerusalem built
by Nehemiah.
Sect of Samaritans.
An eclipse of the sun causes
the defeat of the Athenians
at Syracuse
Thucydides' history ends, and
Xenophon'a begins.
Thb Jews.
449. Persians defeated at Sa-
lamis in Cyprus.
Peace with Greece.
438. Spartacus takes possej*
sion of the Bosphorus.
Asia.
425.
424.
Xerxes II. k. od'cnia
Darius II. k.ol I't »Ma.
404. ArtaxerxesII. (Mnemon.)
king of Persia.
THE world's progress.
2S
258 years, — Cyrus to Alexander.— {Continned,)
407
454. Perdiccas, II. , king of Ma-
cedon.
449. Cimon makes peace with
448. First Sacred War.
447. Athenians defeated at Che-
roncea.
440. Pericles takes Samos.
437. Amphipolis planted by
Athenians.
436. Corinth at war with Cor-
ey ra.
Amyrt«us, king of Egypt,
shakes off the yoke of Per-
sia.
The Carthaginians send 300,-
000 men into Sicily.
432. Revolt of PotidsBa from
the Athenian confederacy.
431. The Peloponnesian War.
Invasion of Attica.
430. The Plague at Athens.
429. Pericles dies, having gov-
erned Athens 40 years.
425. An earthquake separates
the peninsula of Euboea
from the main land.
424. Exile of Thucydides.
Campaign of Brasidas in
Thr£iC6
420. The 90th Olympiad.
Alcibiades effects a treaty
between the Athenians and
Argives.
416. Nicias, general of the
Athenians.
War in Sicily .
414. The Athenians alarmed by
an eclipse, are repulsed be-
fore Syracuse.
413. Archelaus, king of Mace-
don.
412. Athens governed by the
400.— Alliance of Sparta
with Persia.
411. Alcibiades at the court of
Tissaphernes.
410, Alcibiades defeats the
Spartans.
408. Capture of Byzantium.
405. Lysander defeats the
Athenians — takes Athens,
and establishes the 30 ty-
rants.
End of the Peloponnesian
War.
Death of Alcibiades.
451. Decemviri— the laws of
the 12 tables.
Virginia killed by her
father.
446. Syracuse reduces Agri-
gentum.
445. Military Tribunes.
444. Office of Censor insti-
tuted.
440. Famine in Rome.
437. The Veii defeated.
434. War with the Tuscans.
433. The temple of Apollo de-
dicated.
431. The Equi and Volsci d«>
fealed.
Rome, btc.
fi4
THE world's PROORESS.
The Sixth Period.— {The Fersian.y
B.c. Pboqkbss op Socibty, ktc.
377
dGO
Catapulted invented by Diony-
aitts.
Cynics, sect of philosophers
founaed by Anttstheites,
PlatOf the philosopher.
PhiloxeneSf the poet.
Treatise on conic sections by
AriatcRtis.
Diogenes^ the cynic ; Isocratea
and lacBUSy orators.
A celestial globe brought into
Greece from Egypt.
Philippics of Demosthenes.
Commerce of Rhodes with
Africa and Byzantium
Trb Jews.
366. Jeshua elain by Johan-
nan in the inner court of the
temple, for which a heavy
fine is laid on the daily sacri-
fices.
Asia.
401. Cyrus the younger de-
feated.—Retreat of the 10,000
under Xenophon.
400. The city of Delhi found
ed.
387. The Greek cities of Asia
tributary to Persia.
383. BITHYNIA becomes a
kingdom.
Mithridates 1st, king of
PONTUS.
362. AriobarzaneskingofPon*
tus.— Revolt of the Persian
governor in Asia Minor.
361. Darius Ochus, or Artax*
erxes III. king of Persia.
360. CAPPADOCIA becomes
a kingdom under Ariarathos L
TME WORLD'S PROGRESS.
25
258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander, — (Continued.)
379
The Carthaginians land in
Italy.
401. Thrasybulus expels the
Socrates.
30 tyrants.
Death of S
399. Amyntas II., king of Ma-
cedon.
396. Agesilaus goes into Asia.
395. Corinthian War begun.—
Battle of Coronea.
Rome and Italy.
400. Siege of Veii begun.
397. Lake Alba drained.
11. Camillus, Dictator, takes
Veii, after a siege of ten
years.
390. Rome taken and burnt by
the Gauls, under Brennus.
—The Capitol besieged.—
Camillus delivers his coun-
try.
386. Damon and Pythias.
384. M. Manlius Capitolinus
thrown from the Tarpeian
382. Thebes taken by Phoebi- ^°^^'
das,
380. Thebes delivered by Pelo-
pides and Epaminondas. 379. The Volsci defeat die
100th Olympiad. Romans.
377. Spartan fleet defeated at
Naxos.
Tachos, king of Egypt.
Agesilaus, the Spartan,
aids the Egyptians.
Voyages of the Carthaginians
under Hanno.
372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe-
loponnesus, swallowed up
by an earthquake.
371. Battle of Leuctra.
Alexander II., king of Ma-
cedon.
Predominance of Thebes.
370. Perdiccas III., king of
Macedon.
364. Pelopidas killed inbattle,
362. Battle of Mantinea, death
of Epaminondas.
Decline of Grecian
republics.
360. Philip II., king of Mace-
don. defeats the Athenians
at Methone.
The Macedonian phalanx.
War of the allies against
Athens.
358. Philip takes Amphipolis
and loses his right eye by an
arrow from Astor.
357. The 2d Sacred War.
356. Philip conquers Thrace
and Illyria.
The Temple of Diana at
Ephesus burnt.
ALEXANDER"the
Great " bom.
376. Lucitcs SextuSi first pie.
beian consul.
Camillus^ the fifth time
Dictator.
371. The ciirule magistrates
appointed.
362. Curtius leaps into a gulf
in the Forum.
357. Dionysius, the younger}
expelled from Syracuse.
26
r?iE world's progress.
SEVENTH FEniOD.— {The Grecian,)-^
.0. Progrbss of Society, btc-
343
342
336
330
Aristotle, the logician and phi^
losopher, founder of the Pe-
ripatetics; JSschineSy ora-
tor.
Demoathenea ; Icetas, of Syra-
cuse.
The Lyceum built in Attica.
Alexander spares the house of
Pindar.
The revolution of eclipses GrBt
calculated by Calippus, the
Athenian.
Caustic painting or the art
of burning colors into wood
or ivori/, invented by Gau-
eias, a painter of Sicyon.
The Toyage of Nearchus from
the Indus to the Euphrates.
Apelles, the psiinteT; Calis-
thinesy philosopher.
Menander, the inventor of the
new comedy.
Lysistratus mvents moulds
from which to cast wax
figures.
First work oh mechanics, writ-
ten by Aristotle. — iWtJtn^
Bell first mentioned.
The Jews.
Alexander enters Jerusa-
lem.—On seeing Jaddus, the
High Priest, clad in his
robes, he declares he had
seen him in a vision, invit-
ing him to Asia, and pro-
mising him the Persian em-
pire. He goes to the Tem-
ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho-
vah, and departs.
320. Ptolemy carries 100,000
Jews into Eypt.
Onias L
336. Mithridates H., Mr4g of
Pontus.
334. Battle of the Granicus.
333. Battle of isst/«.—Parthia,
Bactria^ Hyrcania,Sogdiana.
and Asia Minor, conquered
by Alexander.
332. Tyre subdued after seven
months' siege.
Damascus taken. — Gaza
surrenders.
331. Battle of Arbela.— The
Persian army totally defeat-
ed.
330. CONaUEST of the PER-
SIAN EMPIRE.
329. Thalestris, queen of the
Amazons, visits Alexander,
with a train of 300 women.
328. Alexander extends his
conquest to the Ganges.
323. Alexander dies at Baby-
lon.
322. Perdiccas takes Cappa-
docia.
320. Eumenea defeated by An-
tigonus.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
27
184 years. — Alexander to the Fall of Chreece.
•m
340
323
Darius Ochus conquers Egypt,
and pillages its temples.
The Carthaginians defeated by
Timoleon.
gypt conquered by Alexan-
der.
Alexandria built.
Ptolemy I. (Soter, son of I«a.
gus.)
Grbeck— Macedon.
353. The Phocians defeated bv
Philip.
348. End of the Sacred War.
Philip takes Olynthus.
346. Philip admitted to the
Amphictyonic Council.
345. Duras buried by an earth-
quake.
^3. Thrace tributary to Mace-
don.
Aristotle appointed tutor
to Alexander.
341. Philip makes war upon
Athens.
340. —lays siege to Byzantium.
Timoleon recovers Syra-
cuse, expels Dionysius, the
tyrant, and defeats the Car-
thaginians at Agrigentum.
338. Philip defeats the Greeks
at Cheronea.
336. Philip is murdered by
Pausanias.
ALEXANDER III., sur-
named the Great.— He rava-
ges Greece, destroys Thebes,
sparing the house of Pindar.
335. — is chosen generalissimo
of Greece against Persia.
334. —invades Persia, and after
several great battles (see
" J.sm") subdues the Per-
sian empire and Egypt, and
marches into India.
330. ^schines, the orator,
banished.
325. Demosthenes banished.
323. <DBath of Alexander.—
The Grecian cities revolt
from Macedon.— Demosthe-
nes recalled.
322. The Greeks defeated by
sea and land near Cranon.
Death of Demosthenes.
321. Antipaler, regent.
319. Polysperchon succeeds
Antipater, and proclaims
liberty to the Grecian cities-
ROME, ETC.
354. Dion put to death, and
Syracuse usurped by ty-
rants.
345. Twelve cities in Campa-
nia buried by an earthquake.
343. Samnian War, which con-
tinues 53 years.
340. P. Decius ae votes him-
self for his country.
All Campania /s subdued.
332. The Caledonian mo-
narchy (Scotland) founded
by Fergus I.
325. Papirius Cursor, Diclator.
321. The Samnites make the
Romans pass under the yoke.
320. The Samnites defeated at
liUceria.
28
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — {The Gredan.y
B.C. Proorbss op Society, etc.
817
312
310
300
293
290
S84
Commerce of Maccdon with
India, through Egypt.
The Appian Way constructed.
— The Gnomon invented to
measure altitudes.
Aqueducts and baths in Rome.
Euclid, of Alexandria, the
celelbrated mathematician.—-
Zeno, founder of the Stoics ;
— Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ;
Epicurus, of the Epicu-
reans.—Bion, of Borysthe-
nes, philosopher.
The great Chinese Wall huilt.
The first sun-dial erected at
Rome by Papirius Cursor,
and the time first divided
into hours. t
Fabius mtroduces |)amf m^^ at
Rome.
The Colossus of Rhodes
built by Chares, of Lindus.
TheocriteSf the father of pas-
toral poetry.
Dionysius, the astronomer at
Alexandria, begins his era.
He found the solar year to
consist of 365 days, 5 hours,
and 49 minutes.
The Septtcagint translation of
the Old Testament, begun at
Alexandria, bj order of Pto-
lemy Philadelphus.
311. Judea subject to A'.itigo.
nus.
301. Judea under the domi-
nion of the Ptolemies.
^. The sect of the Sadducees.
Asia.
312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator.
311. Seleucus Nicator retakes
Babylon.
Era of the SeleucidcR.
310. Eumeles usurps the
throne of Bosphorus, putting
to death all his brothers.
After a reign of six years, is
murdered.
305. War in India, against
Sandrocottus.
301. Battle of JfpsMs.— Antigo-
nus killed.
ALEXANDER'S EM-
PIRE DIVIDED in four
parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus,
Cassander, Lysimachus.
Mithridates III., king of
Pontus.
291. Seleucus founds Antioch,
Edessa, and Laodicea.
285. The Scythians hivade
Bosphorus.
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
29
184 years. — (Continued.)
307
306
Agathocles is defeated by the
Carthaginians.
Peace between Sicily and Car-
thage.
318. Phocion put to death by
the Athenians.
317. Cassander assumes
the government of Macedon.
Demetrius Phalerius gov-
erns Athens.
315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes,
and founds Cassandria.
312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II.,
the greatest hero of his time.
G&BBCB.
306. Democracy established at
Athens by Demetrius.
304. Athenians repulsed from
Rhodes.
303. Demetrius Poliorcetes,
general of the Grecian States.
300. Restoration of Democracy
at Athens.
ROMB, ETC.
317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp-
ed by Agathocles.
312. War with the Etruicans.
310. The Carthaginians defeat
Agathocles, and besiege Sy-
racuse.
308. Fabius Maximut
defeats the Samnites.
303. Establishment of the
Tribus UrbaruB.
300.First Plebeian High Priest.
291. Death of Cassander.—
Alexander and Antipater
296. Siege of Athens, by De-
metrius.
294. Demetrius murders Alex-
ander, and seizes the throne
of Macedon.
287. Athens revolts from De-
metrius.
286. Pyrrhus expelled from
Macedon.
284. The Achaean Republic.
290. EndoftheSaraniteWaf.
286. Law of Hortensius, bf
which the decrees of the
people bad the force of those
of the senate.
30
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period, — {The Grecian.) —
».o. PaoaRBSs of Socibty, etc.
The Pharos built at Alexan-
dria, the first light-house on
record.
Philetarus. of Pergamua, pa-
tron of the arts, especially
Architecture.
Alexandria, the resort of the
learned, and centre of trade.
Chariots armed with scythes,
end fortified camps^ in uae.
First society of critics formed.
Ptolemy makes a :anal from
the Nile to the Red Sea.
Silver money first coined.
The Parian Chronicle com-
posed.
Gladiators first exhibited at
Rome.
BerosuSi the historian of Ba-
bylon.
The armillary sphere mvented
by Erastosthenes, who made
the first attempt to determine
the length of a degree.
Greece instructs the Romans
in the arts and sciences.
248. Oniaa 11., high priest.
Asia.
282. The kingdom of PER-
GAMUS founded by Phile
t&rus.
281. Lysimachus defeated and
killed by Seleucus.— Antio-
chus Soter succeeds Seleu-
266. Ariobarzanes III., king of
Pontus.
262. Antiochus Soter defeated
at Sardis.
256. Kingdom of PARTHIA
foimded by Arsaces.
255. The fourth imperial dy-
nasty of China begins.
252. Mithridates IV., besieged
in his capital by the Gauhi.
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
184 years. — (Continued.)
31
Africa.
283 Ptolemy Philadelphus king of
Egypt.
Greecb.
269
Egypt first sends ambassadors
to Rome.
283. Lysimachia destroyed by
an earthquake.
281. Lysimachus defeated and
slain by Seleucus.
The Achaean League of
12 states, under Aratus, of
Sicyon.
279. Irrruption of the Gauls
under Brennus.
278. — they are defeated near
Delphi.
277. Antigonus Gonatus, king
of Macedon.
274. Pyrrhus invades Mace-
don, defeats Antigonus, and
is proclaimed king.
Rome, bto.
283. The Gavin and
riana subdued.
Etnk-
281. The Tarentine War.
280. The Tarentines seek the
alliance of Pyrrhus, who
conquers the Romans at
Pandosia, and at
279 — Asculum.
278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr-
hus.
275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus,
and compels him to leave
Italy.
251
Regulus invades Africa, and is
defeated by Xantippus, a
Spartan general.
Metellus defeats Asdrubal.
272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 27!^. Fall of Tarentum.
and Argos— is slam, ana An-
tigonus is restored.
268. Athens taken by Antigo-
nus Gonatus.
Second incursion of the
Gauls into Macedon.
255. Antigonus liberates
Athens.
Athens joins the Achaean
league.
251. Sicyon joins the Achaean
league.
250. The Romans begui to re-
sort to Greece for improve-
ment in knowledge. — Par-
thia revolts from Macedon.
266. Rome mistress of all Italy :
census of the city 292,224.
264. The first PUNIC WAR.
— Appius Claudius drives
Hiero from Syracuse.
260. D u ill u s gains a vie*
tory over the Carthaginian
fleet.
256. Regulus gains ano-
ther victory.
255. The Lacedemonians as-
sisting Carthage. — Xantip-
pus defeats Regulus, and
takes him prisoner.
254. Palermo besieged by the
Romans. — About this time
the Huns are first heard oi;
governed by Teuman.
249. Naval fight at Drapanun)
32
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
The Seventh Period, — {The Grecian)-^
B. 0 Pbooress of Sooiett, etc.
iwn
233
225
224
Agrarianism attempted in
Sparta, but is put down.
Comedies first acted at Rome,
tliose oiLivius Andronictcs.
The original MSS. of JEschy-
lusy Euripidea and Sopho-
cles, lent by the Athenians
to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15
talents.
Fabiu8 PictoTj the first Roman
historian.
AppoUonius Rhodius, poet. —
Chrysippus, Stoic pniloso-
pher.
Archimede^i the mathemati-
cian, demonstrates the pro-
perties of the lever, and
other mechanical powers,
also the art of measuring
solids and surfaces^and conic
sections — constructs aplane-
tarium.
&rt of SuTgery introduced.
A& tdlipse of the moon ob-
senred in Asis Minor.
The Jews.
237. Simon II., High Priest.
246. Antiochus II. poisoned by
his wife.
241. Attalus I., king of Perga-
mus.
226. Seleucus III., k. of Syria
224. The Colossus of Rhodei
thrown down.
213. Chi Hong Ti destroys the
records of the Chinese em-
pire.
211. Antiochus th«
Great, king of Syna.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
33
184 years. — (Continued.)
247
246
238
237
227
Africa.
Hamilcar Barcas, general of
the Carthaginians.
Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy-
ria.
End of the Libyan War.
Ilamiloar with Hannibal, pass-
es into Spain.
Carthagena in Spain, built by
Asdrubal.
219
Ptolemv, Philopater, king of
Egypt.
Conquests of Hannibal,
the Carthaginian, in Spain ;
He crosses the Alps.
243. Corinth taken by Aratus.
242. Demetrius II., of Mace-
don.
241. Agis, king of Sparta, put
to death for attempting to es-
tablish an Agrarian law.
240. Cleanihus, the Stoic,
starves himself.
232. Philip III., of Macedon.
228. Roman ambassadors first
appear at Athens and Co-
rmth.
The fortress of the Athe-
naeum built.
Rome, etc.
226. Cleomenes, king of Spar-
ta, defeats the Achaeans.—
Lyscades killed.— The Agra-
rian law restored.
225. The Romans send another
embassy to Greece. They
are admitted to a share in
the Isthmian e^ames. and
granted the freedom oi Ath-
ens.
223. Cleomenes takes Megalo-
polis.
2!?2. Battle of Sellasia.
220. The SocialWar.
—Philip, of Macedon, as-
sists the Achseans.— Cleome-
nes dies in Eyypt.— Agesi-
polis and Lycurgus elected
kings of Sparta.
" Acanania ceded to Philip.
218.
215. Aratus poisoned at
iEgium.
214. First Macedonian War.
211. Alliance of Philip with
Hannibal.
247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro-
mans at Liliboeum.
241. End of the first Punie
War.
231. Sardinia and Corsica con-
quered by Rome.
225. The Gauls repulsed in
Italy.
224. The Romans first cross
the Po.
223. Colonies of P I a c e n •
t i a and Cremona.
222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu-
ria (Genoa) conquered by
Rome.
219. Hannibal takes Sagun-
tum, and crosses the Alps.
218. The Second Punic
War .—The Romans dc-
feated by Hannibal at T i ♦
c i n i s and T r e b i a .
217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated
at Thrasymene.
216. Varro at C a n n as to-
totally defeated by HannibaL
Fabius Mazimus,
Dictator.
212. Syracuse and Sicily con-
quered by Marcel lus.
—Archimedes killed.
211. The Carthaginians driTen
from Capua.
34
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian.) —
B.C. PaoasBss op Soqibtt, bto.
206
202
200
198
Ennius, of Calabria, poet;
Sotion^ of Alexandria, a
grammarian.
Plautua^ of Umbria, the co-
mic poet; AppoUoniuSf of
Perga^ mathematician,* Ze-
no, of Tarsus, the philoso-
pher.
Gold coined at Rome.
The art ot printing in China.
Artstonymus 4th, librarian of
Alexandria.
Caiics Lelitis, the Roman
orator.
The Jbws.
203. JUDEA CONaUBRED 3Y
Antioohus the Great.
201. Onias III., High Priest.
200. Jesus, the son of Sirach,
writes Ecclesiasticus.
206. The dynasty of H a n in
China.
Books, with leaves of vellum,
introduced by Attalus, king
of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls.
18S
183
180
A total eclips^e of the, sun at
Rome.
Asiatic luxuries brought to
Rome.
A comet visible 80 days,
Bion and Moschus, comic
poets.
Statins Cacilius, comic poet.
98. The Jews assist Antio
chus in expelling Scopas and
the Egyptian troops from
Jerusalem.
First mention of a Senate or
Sanhedrim.
197. Eumenes, king of Perga-
mus.
196. Hannibal joins Antiochus,
who seizes the Thracian
Chersonese.
192. SjTia at war with Rome.
190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats
Antiochus at Magnesia.
187. Antiochus killed in iht
temple of Jupiter Belus.—
Syria becomes a
Roman province.
186. The city of Artaxata (in
Armenia) built.
185. Seleucus IV., king of Sy-
ria.
183. PhamacesI.,kingofPon-
tus, conquers S i n o p e .
THE world's progress.
35
184 years. — (Continued.)
180
Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of
Egypt.
The Roman general Scipio be-
sieges Utica, and takes in
one davthe camps of Asdru-
bal and Syphax.
Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis-
ba poisoned by Masinissa.
Hannibal defeated at Z a m a .
—End of the 2d Punic War.
208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis.
—Philip, of Macedon, de-
feats the .aEtolians.
206. Battle of Mantinea :
Philopoemen, the Prae-
tor of Achaia, defeats the
Spartans.
Treaty of Carthage with Ma-
sinissa, king of Numidia.
Egypt loses her Syrian posses-
sions.
Masinissa harasses the Cartha-
ginians, and injures their
commerce.
Ptolemy Philomeler, king of
Egypt.
200. The Rhodians defeat the
Macedonian fleet near Chios.
—Siege of Abydos.— Second
Macedonian War begins.
198. The Achaeans and Spar-
tans join tlie Romans against
Macedon.
197. Philip III. defeated at Cy-
nocephalae by the Romans,
under Flaminius.
195. Flaminius, the Roman,
uarrels with Nabis, king of
Iparta.
189. Epirus declared free by
the Romans.
188. Philopoemen abrogates
the laws of Lycurgus
Sparta.
183. Philopoemen defeated and
killed by Dinocrates, king of
Messinia.
Rome, bto.
210. Scipio takes Tfkm
Carthage,, and conquan As-
drubal.
207. Nero and Livy clafeat As-
drubal at Metaurua— Aedni-
bal killed.
206. The Carthaginians ebriT«i
out of Spain.
204. Scipio carries the war
into Africa.
201. Scipio carries Syphax in
triumph to Rome.
197. Flaminius victorious in
Macedon.
195. C a t o in Spain.
190. War with Antiochus, of
Syria, who is totally defeat-
ed by L. C. Scipio, and
188. Syria is made a Roman
province.
187. Scipio Africanus banish-
ed from Rome.
183. Cato, the elder, censor.
181. Plague at Rome.
180. Death of Scipio Afirioi^
nus.
179. Numa's books found in a
stone coffin at Rome.
36
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — {The Crrecian.y
B.C. Progress of Society, etc.
Paper invented in China.
Polybius, historian of Greece
and Rome.
The comedies of Terence per-
formed.
An eclipse of the moon, which
was predicted by Q. S. Cal-
lus.
The fxat library opened at
Rome, consisting of books
brougnt from Macedon.
The Roman treasury is so rich
that the citizens pay no
taxes.
Hipparchua of Nice fixes the
first degree of longitude and
latitude at Ferro, whose
most western point was
made the first general meri-
dian—lays the foundation of
Trigonometry.
Philosophers and rhetoricians
banished from Rome.
The clepsydra or water clock
invented by Scipio Nascia.
Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro-
nomer. — Ariatarchus, of
Alexandria, grammarian.
176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem.
175. Jason obtains the high
priesthood by corruption.
172. Jason defeated by Mene-
laus.
170. Jerusalem and the temple
plundered by Antiocnus
Epiphanes, who attempts to
abolish the Jewish religion,
and commits great cruelties.
167. Matthias, High Priest.
165. Judas Maccabeus ex-
gels the Syrians, and puri-
es the temple.
161. Judas kills Nicanor— is
succeeded by Jonathan.
First treaty with the Ro-
mans.
158. Jonathan compels the Bac-
chides to withdraw— is mur-
dered by Tryphon.
150. Jews take Joppa.
Asia.
172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha-
nes) king of Syria.
171 —declares war against Pto-
lemy Philomater.
170. An irruption of Tartars
into China.
166. Prusias, kirg of I ithynia.
164. Antiochus Epiphanes
died.
162. Demetrius Soter, king of
Syria.
Mithridates Philopater,
king of Cappadocia.
157. Mithridates V., king oi
Pontus.
153. Ariarathes VH., king ol
Cappadocia.
150. Alexander Bala kills De-
metrius,and takes the throne.
149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kill-
ed by his son Nicomedes.
THE world's progress.
184 years. — (Continued.)
37
174
Cato's embassy to Carthage.
152
151
U6
Massinissa defeats the Cartha-
ginians.
Joint reign of Philomater and
Physcon in Egypt.
CARTHAGE TAKEN and
destroyed.
Greece.
178. Perseus, king of Mace-
don.
171. Third Macedonian War.
168. Perseus defeated at Pyd-
na, by Paulus Emilius.—
Macedon becomes a Ro
MAN Province.
165. Romans enter Achaia.
155. Embassy of Diogenes,
Camiades, and Critolaus to
Rome.
152. Andriscus usurping the
government of Macedon, is
conquered by Metellus.
147. Metellus defeats the Ach-
fleans in Greece.
146. Corinth taken and de-
stroyed by Mummius. —
GREECE becomes a RO-
MAN PROVINCE under
the name of Achaia.
Rome, etc.
170. Tiberius and GaiUf
Gracchus.
167. Census 327,032.
155. Romans unsuccessful m
Spain.
151. Defeat of Galba.
149. Third Punio War.
Conquest of Carthage and
of Corinth.
Greece annexed to the
Roman empire.
38
THE world's progress.
EIGHTH PERIOD.—! T^e Roman.y^
B.C.
146
143
140
137
133
130
120
116
110
Pboobbss of Sooibty, btc.
Alexandria^ the centre of com-
merce.
Hipparchus begins his new
ci/cle of the moon.
Toothed wheels applied to the
clepsydra by Ctesibius.
Learning and learned men
liberally patronized by Ptol-
emy Physcon.
Diodortis and Satyrtis, peri-
patetics ; Nicander. physi-
cian and poet ; Lttcitis Ac-
citts^ tragic poet ; Aristobu-
Itcs, the Jewish peripatetic.
Equestrian order, a distinct
class.
Revival of learning in China.
The theory of eclipses known
to the Chinese.
L. Cadius Antipater, histo-
rian ; Lucillitcs, the first
Roman satirist ; Apollodo-
rus, of Athens, chronologist ;
Castor, of Rhodes, chrono-
logist; Anthem^n, philoso-
pher.
First sumptuary law at Rome.
Thb Jews.
142. Simon, High Priest.
135. End of the Apocrypha.—
Jerusalem besieged by An-
tiochus IV.
130. John Hyrcanus delivers
Judea from the Syrian yoke :
—reduces Samaria and Idu-
108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama-
ria.
107. —succeeded by his son
Aristobulusj who first as-
sumes the title of king.
1(K). Alexander Janneus at
war with E^ypt— takes Ga-
za. — Rebellion excited by
the Pharisees.
137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetes,)
king of Syria.
134. Antiochus invades Judea.
130. Antiochus IV. defeated
and killed in a war with Par-
thia.
129. Demetrius II. (Nicator)
regains Syria.
123. Mithndates the Great,
king of Pontus.
111. Mithridates conquers Scy*
thia, Bosphorus, Colchis,
&c.
THE world's progress.
146 years.— -Fall of Greece to the Christian Era.
39
146
146
129
128
123
118
116
112
107
105
Commerce of the world cen-
tres at Alexandria.
Ptolemy Physcon becomes
sole king of Egypt by the
death of Philomater.
Ptolemy Physcon driven from
his throne for his cruelty.
Pestilence in Egypt.
Carthage rebuilt.
Death of Micipsa, king of
Numidia, and the assassina-
tion of Hiempsal by Jugur-
tha.
Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of
Jugurtnine War.
Alexander I., king of Egypt.
Jugurtha is defeated and sur-
renders Numidia to the Ro-
mans.
Roman Empirb.
In the East.
133. Pergamus,
Province.
a Roman
118. Dalmatia,
Province.
a Roman
In Europe.
141. Numantian War.
140. The Picts from the north
of England settle in the south
of Scotland.
135. Servile war in Sicily.
133. Numantia destroyed by
Scipio : Spain becomes a
Roman Province.
Death of Tiberius Grac-
chus.
123. Tribunate of C a i u «
Gracchus.
113. First great migration of
the German tuitions.
109. War of the Teutoni and
Cimbri.
105. Numidia becomes a Ro-
man province by the defeat
of Jugurtha.
104. The Teutoni defeat 80,000
Romans on the banks of the
Rhone.
102. M a r i u 9 victorious
over the Teutoni and Ambro-
nes at Aquae Sextae.
101. Marius and Catullus de-
feat the Cimbri.
100. Marius buys his sixth con-
sulate.
Banishment of Metellus;
40
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
The Eighth Period. — {The Roman.)-^
B.o Progress of Society, etc,
Libraries of Athens sent to
Rome by Sylla.
Decline of Agriculture
Italy; com supplied from
the provinces.
Posidonius calculates the
height of the atmosphere to
be about 800 stadia.
Zeno^ of Sidon,the Epicurean ;
ApeUicon of Athena ; Alex-
ander Poli/phistor,thegraim-
marian ; Photius Galltcs,
rhetorician ; Q. Valeritis
Antias, Roman historian ;
Q. Hortensius, orator.
The cherry tree brought to
Europe from Asia by Lu-
cullus. -- Terentitcs Varro
writers three books on agri-
culture.
The Romans possess gold
mines in Asia Minor, Mace-
donia, Sardinia and Gaul ;
and productive silver mines
in Spain.
The first water mill described
near a dwelling of Mithri-
dates.
Ebony introduced at Rome by
Pompey.
Vikramaditya, king of Ozene,
in India, patron of literature
— at his court flourish Ante-
ra Sinka, lexicographer;
Vararucht^ grammarian ;
KalidasOj poet.
The Jews.
79. Alexandra, widow of Jan-
neus, governs Judea.
70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest,
deposed by his brother Aris-
tobulus.
67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus
appeal to Pompey, who en-
ters Judea and takes Jerusa-
lem, and restores Hyrcanus
to the priesthood.
63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO-
VINCE.
98. China still submits to the
Han dynasty ; S e m a t •
z i n . Emperor.
97. Mitnridates conquers Cap-
padocia.
95. Cappadocia declared free
by Rome. — Ariobarzanes
elected king.
94. Antiochus, king of Syria,
defeated t y Seleucus.
93. Tigranes, king of Arme-
nia.
89. Pontus at war with Rome.
86. Mithridates takes Bytbi-
nia and several Roman pro-
vinces.
83. Tigranes made king of
Syria.
75. By the death of Nicome-
des Bythinia becomes a
province.
70. Damascus possessed by
the Romans.
69. Mithridates and Tigranes
defeated by LucuUus.
66. Mithridates defeated by
Pompey.
65. Antiochus XII. defeated
by Pompey.— The race of
the SeleucidsB becomes ex-
tinct. — Ariobarzanes II.,
king of Cappadocia. —An
earthquake in Bosphorus
lays in ruins several towns.
64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia,
seizes Armenia Minor.
63. Pharmaces, king of Pontus.
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
41
146 years, — (Continued.)
Africa.
By the death of Ptolemy
Apion, Cyrenb becomes a
Roman province.
Roman Empibk.
In Asia and Africa.
97. Annexation of Cyrene.
81
Revolt in tipper Egypt.—
Thebes destroyed.
Alexander II., king of Egypt.
89. Mithridatic War; Sylla
commands the Roman army.
88. The Athenians seek as-
sistance from Mithridates
against Rome.
86. Athens, reduced by famine,
is taken by Sylla.
83. Second Mithridatic War.
82. Sylla plunders the temple
of Delphi.
In Europe.
9. Lusitania conquered
by Dolabella, and becomes
a Roman province. — Birth
of Julius Caesar.
65
79. P 0 m p e y defeats Do-
mitius in Africa.
75. Bythinia a Roman
Province.
74. Third Mithridatic War
under Lucullus.
Ptolemy Auletes, king of
Egypt.
&&. Metellus subdues Crete.
P o n t u s becomes a
Roman Province.
65. Syria, a Roman
Province.
91. Social War in Italy.
? Sylla defeating the
Marsi and Peligni, puts an
end to the Social War.
Civil War between Ma-
rius and Sylla.
82. Sylla defeats Marius, and
is created perpetual dictator,
0. JULIUS CESAR'S First
Campaign.
77. Sertorius revolts in Spain
and defeats Metellus and
Pompey.
73. War of Spartacus, the gla-
diator.
71. Spartacus defeated by Cras
BUS.
70. Pompey and Cras
s u s Consuls.
69. Census 450,090.
65. M. T. Cicero, Consul.
63. Cataline's Conspi-
' racy detected and sujv
pressed by Cicero.
42
THE world's progress.
The Eighth Period.— (The Roman.)"
B.C. Progress op Society, etc.
62
The Jews.
66
60
43
Magnificent houses of the
nobles; marble theatre of
Scaurm, to hold 30,000 spec-
tators.
Cicero, statesman and orator ;
SaUuaty historian; Lucre-
tiu8 and Catullus^ poets;
ApoUonius, of Rhodes, rhe-
torician ; Ariatomedes, of
Crete, grammarian ; Andro-
nicus, of Rhodes, peripate-
tic philosopher.
Iron chain cables used by the
Veneti.
A water mill on the Tiber at
Rome.
Asia.
The Alexandrian library (400,-
000 vols.) burnt.
The year of confusion — so
called because the calendar
was altered by Sosigenes.
CeBsar reforms the Calendar,
by introducing the solar in-
stead of the lunar year.—
First Julian year. — Vitru-
vius, the greatest Roman ar-
chitect.
Comeliua Nepos, historian ;
Diodorus JSiculus, histo-
rian.
53. Crassus plunders the tern- 53. Parthian War,— The Ro-
pie of 10,000 talents. mans defeated. — Crassus
slain.
49. The era of Antioch.
48. Antipater, the Idumean, is
made lieutenant in Judea by
Cajsar.
43. Judea oppressed by Cras-
sus.
Malichus poisons Anti-
pater.
40. Herod the Great, son of
Antipater, defeats his rival,
Anti^onus, and Parcorus,
the Parthian— takes Jerusa-
lem—marries Mariamne— ip
made kin? by the Romans.
47. Battle of Zek.— Phamaces
conquered by Caesar.
44. A comet seen in China.
39. The Parthians, under Par-
corus, defeated by Venti
dius.
Darius, king of Pontus.
3S. Ariobarzanes dethroned by
Marc Antony,
THE world's progress.
146 years. — (Continued.)
43
58
46
45
43
Africa.
Ptolemy goes to Rome, Bere-
nice reigns in hin absence.
The African War. — Scipio
and Juba defeated at Thap-
BUS.— Cato kills himself at
Utica. —Ptolemy Dionysius
drowned in the Nile.
Caesar rebuilds Carthage.
Cleopatra poisons her brother
and reigns alone.
Roman Empire.
East.
53. Crassus defeated and killed
in Parthia.
48. Thessaly becomes the seat
of war.— The Attlenians de-
clare for Caesar against Pom-
pey.
Battle of Pharsalia :—Vom-
pey, defeated by Csesar, flees
mto Egypt, and is slain there.
'iJ. Caesar takes Alexandria,
and conquers Egypt.— Cae-
sar victorious at Zela, in
Asia.
45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar.
West.
60. First Triumvirate ;—
Pompey, Crassus, and Julius
Caesar.
Sciold, first king of Den-
mark.— Boh, a fierce son
of Odin.
58. Clodius procures the ban
ishment of Cicero. — The
Helvetii defeated by Julius
57. Cicero recalled. — S a 1 -
lust expelled from the
senate.— Gylf, king of Swe-
den.
55. Caesar passes the
Rhine, defeats the Ger-
mans and Gauls, and In-
vades Britain.
54. Caesar's second invasion
of Britain.
52. Pompey, sole consul.
51. Caesar completes the con-
quest of Gaul, which be-
comes a Roman province.
49. CsBsar passes the
Rubicon, and in sixty
days makes himself master
of Italy— marches into Spain
and forces Pompey's troops
to surrender.
48. Battle of Dyrrhachium.
45. Caesar perpetual
dictator — he subdues
the two sons of Pompey, and
acquires the sole power.
44. Caesar assassinated in the
Senate House.
43. Second Triumvirate ;—
Octavius Caesar, Marc An-
tony, and Lepidus.— Cicero
proscribed and murdered.
42. The Battle of Philippi ;—
Antony and Octavius defeat
Brutus and Cassius.
44
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
The Eighth Period. — (The Raman.y^
B. G. Prooress op Society, etc.
30
Golden age of Roman litera-
ture.
The revenue of the empire
amounts to about 40 milhons
sterling.— First standing ar-
my in Rome.— Direct trade
of Rome with India.— iS'z/A:
and linen manufactories
in the empire.
Temple of Janus at Rome
closed— there being now a
general peace.
Treasures of Egyptian art
brought to Rome.— The Pan-
theon built,
Horace, Virgil, Tibullus,
Propertius, poets; Varrus
and Tucca, critics; Livy,
historian ; Maecenas^ minis-
ter of Augustus, patron of
literature; StrabOy geogra-
pher; JEmilius Macer, of
Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war-
rior, and patron of the arts.
Worship oj Isis at Rome.
Pantomimic dances intro-
duced on the Roman stage.
Aqueducts constructed by
Agrippa.
Dedications of lyyoks first in-
troduced.
The legions distributed over
the provinces in fixed camps,
which soon grew into cities
—among them were Bonn
and Mayence.
The calendar corrected by
Augustus.
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus,
uic,^r.i^^ . and Dionysius,
The Jews.
34. Antony takes possession
of Armenia, which becomea
a Roman province — leads
an inglorious expedition
against Parthia.
30. Herod kills Mariamne.
Asia.
29. Ephesus, next to
Alexandria, the chief place
of trade in the Roman em*
pire.
historian :
19. The Temple rebuilt by
Herod— he also builds Cy-
pron, Antipatris, Pharsajlis,
and the to'wer of Phasael in
Jerusalem.
.. , — ^,^..y^.^, y. Cyrenius taxes Judea.
geographer. •
BtkTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be-
fore the Vulgar Era
20. Porus, king of India, soli-
cits an alliance with Rome.
Parthians defeated by Ti-
berius.
14. Polemon conquers Bo»
porus.
3. Archelaus succeeds Herod
with the title of Ethnarch.
THE world's progress.
45
146 years. — (Continued.)
36
34
Cleopatra obtains from An-
tony a grant of Phoenicia,
Cyrene and Cyprus,
— receives all Asia from the
Mediterranean to the Indus.
Cleopatra and Marc Antony
defeated by Octavius, at
Actlum.
Alexandria taken by Octavius.
—Antony and Cleopatra de-
stroy themselves.
Egypt becomes a Ro-
man province.
Roman Empire.
21. Athens finally subjected to
Rome.
20. CXCth Olympiad.
West.
36. Sextus Pompey defeated
in Sicily.
32. Antony quarrels with Oc-
tavius.
31. By the BATTLE OF AC-
TIUM Octavius acquires
the empire.
30. THE REPUBLIC BE-
COMES A MONARCHY.
29. Octa\ lUb 8 3 days triumph
at Rome. ^
Temple of Janus shut. ^
Rome contains 4,101,017
citizens.
27. The titles of Augustus and
Emperor conferred on Octa-
vius for 10 years.
8. Tiberius at Rhodes.
5. Q. Varrus appointed gov-
ernor of Syria, and Cyre-
nius governor of Judea.
23. Agrippa in Spain.
22. Conspiracy of Muraena.
2L Augustus visits Greece,
and Asia.
16. Lollius defeated by the
Germans.
15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhce-
bia, Vindelencia and Moesia
become Roman provinces-
being conquerea by Dru-
sus.
13. Augustus assumes the
title of Pontifex Maximus.
12. Pannonia, conquered by
Tiberius, becomes a Ro-
man province.
11. Germany subdued by Gcr
manicus.
4. Cymbeline, king of Britain.
PAIIT II.
MODERN CHRONOLOGY,
FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIMK.
Epochas or Periods.
I. From the Christian Era } Period of the Ten Persecution* of
to the Reign of Constantino the Great, A. D. 306 ) Christians.
U.
HI.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 ( " Northern Invasions.
Flight of Mahomet, « 622 ( " Justinian and Belisariua,
Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, « 800 ( " ^^^^^^^ Empire.
Battle of Hastings, « 1066 ( " New Western Empire.
Foundmg of the Turkish Empire, « 1299
The Crusades.
Taking of Constantinople, « 1453 ( " Tamerlane, Wicklije, and Su$4.
Vni. ) " The Reformation; Discoveriea
" Edict of Nantes, " 1598 J and Inventions.
-^- ( " The English Cotnmontcealth
" Death of Charles Xll. of Sweden, " 1718 J and Wars of Louis XIV.
X. I " American and French Bevolti-
" Battle of Waterloo, « 1815$ tions.
XI. ( " European Revolutions, Literor
" l)resent Ume, (1850.) s ture and the Arts.
48 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st.— (T^e 7^n Persecutions.)^
Proorbss of Society, btc.
CelauSy the physician; Phcddrus, the fabu-
list ; Vellttis Patercultcs, Roman histo-
rian.
26
30
Sacrbd.
The BIRTH OF CHRIST .—(see p. 44.)
Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch
of Galilee.
8. Christ reasons with the doctors.
The Druids in Germany.
Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato.
Seneca, moral philosopher.
Valeritcs Maximus^ historian.
Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called
the "Trumpet of the World."
48
60
A census being taken by Claudius, the em-
peror and censor, the mhabitants of Rome
are fo'und to amount to 6,900,000.— ( Univ.
Hist.)— [More than three times the number
of London at present.]
Columella, horn in Spain; left twelve books
on husbandry.
25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea.
26. John the Baptist begins his ministry,
27. Christ baptized by John
23. —at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew
called.
29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and
two."
30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri-
day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection.
Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday,
May 4.
33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius.
34. St. Paul converted to Christianity.
39. St. Matthew writes his gospel,
40. The disciples first called Christians ac
Antioch.
41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned
44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of
St.. James.
45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus,
50, Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athenf.
52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem '
55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Cssa-
rea,
57. —pleads before Felix.
59. —pleads before Festus, and appeals, to
Cssar.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
49
306 yearn. — Prom the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine.
Roman Empire.
East.
Caius Caesar makes peace with the Parthians.
Germanicus conquers Cappadocia.
Germanicus poisoned at Antioch.
Thrace becomes a Roman province.
West.
Tiberius returns to Rome.
3. Cinna's conspiracy detected.
— Caius Cassar dies.
6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov-
erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro-
vince.
9. The Germans, under Arminius, defeat and
kill Varrus.
Ovid is banished to Tomos.
14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is
succeeded by
-Tiberius.
19. The Jews banished from Rome. — The
Marcomanni conquered by Drusus.
"2] . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire.
26. Tiberius retires to Capraea.
31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death.
33. Conquest of Mauritania.
37. Tiberius dies, aged 78.
-Caligula,
(noted for his profligacy and folly.)
41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas.
■ Claudius
succeeds to the throne.
43. —invades Britain with his general, Plau-
tins.
45. Vespasian, general in Britain.
48. Census of the city, 6,900,000.
51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con-
quered and brought to Rome.
--- N e r o ,f
a profligate and bloody tyrant.
55. —poisons Britanicus.
56. Rotterdam h\x\\i.
59. Nero's mother, Agrippiua, put to death by
his order.
50
THE world's progress. [Modem : Period /.--306 years.
07
09
Progress op Society, etc.
78
80
96
Nero's golden palace built ; of great extent,
inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in
Rome more regular after the fire.
Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural
history ; Quintiits Curtius, historian ; Per-
sitis, satirist.
Josephua, the Jewish historian.
The Coliseum of Vespasian.
Sacred and Ecclesiastical.
The Capitol rebuilt.
Circumnavigation of Scotland.
Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of
Titus ; the group of the Laocoon.
Quintillian, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet ;
Martial, Epigrammatist; ApoUonius, Py-
thagorean philosopher; Epictetus, stoic;
Dio Chrysost.om, Greek rhetorician and phi-
losopher ; Philo ByH ius ; Ignatius and Pa-
pias, two of the fathers of tne church.
Tacitus^ historian; Juvenal, satirist; Sta-
tius, poet; Aul. GeUius, Latin gramma-
rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ;
the younger Pliny.
The Ulpian library; Public schools in all
the provinces; Jurisprudence flourishes;
the city adorned with the Forum ; Pillar
of Trajan^ and baths; bridge built over
the Danube.
59. Paul is shipwrecked on the Island of
Melita (Malta).
60. Paul imprisoned at Rome
63. Paul set at liberty.
64. The first persecution of Christians by
Nero.
63 to 66. I'aul visits Jerusalem, and travels
through ihe greater part of the known
world.
66. Pope Linus.*
The Jews at war with the Romans, and
Paul beheaded.
St. Peter crucified.
67. The Jews massacred by Florus. — Josephus,
governor of Galilee.
Pope St. Clement.— Gamaliel
68. Vespasian invades Judea.
70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by Thtua.
77. Pope St. Cletus
83. Pope Anacletus.
95. Second persecution of the Christian! fay
Domitian.
St. John writes his Gospel and Apoca>
lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patmos.
96. Pope Evaristus.
97. Timothy aianedi.
St. John returns from exile.
98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan.
* The word Pope is used in accordance
with the Roman Catholic usage, though the
name was not adopted by their Pontiffs tiU
several centuries after.
— Christian Era to Constantiiie.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
51
Roman Empire.
60
East.
Corbub subdues Armenia.
Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by
Nero.
61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boct-
dicea ; they burn London, The queen, de.
feated by Suetonius, poisons herself.
64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the
Christians of the crime,
—persecutes the Christians—Seneca, Zm-
cian, and others put to death.
-Galba,
reigns 9 months, and is put to death by
73
Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by
Titus.
Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace,
Cilicia. Byzantium and Samos.
Revolt of the Parthians.
69.-
-O tho.
(2 months) defeated and killed by
- V i t e 1 1 i us,
70.-
who is defeated by the army of
Vespasian, y^
77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in
one day.
79.-
T i t u s , S .
(beneficent.)
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed
by an irruption of Vesuvius.
80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor
of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia.
81.—
-D omi t i an,*^
( a cruel tyrant.)
!, Dercebal, leader of the German hordes,
defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a
yearly tribute.
88! Capitoline and secular g
War with Dacia 15 years.
96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus.
N e r V a ,
(well intentioned but enfeebled by age.)
-T raj' an
(a great sovereign anda warrior.)
The Roman Empire at its greatest exteu'
jr. Severus, general in Britain.
52
THE world's PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period I. — 306 years.
107
120
Progress op Socikty. etc.
The Jirst credible higtorian among the
Chinese.
The great buildings oi Pahnyra. — Temple of
the Sun at Baalbec.
The Roman mosaics.
Jurisprudence improved by the publishment
of Adrian^ s perpetual code.
Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer
and geographer —^rrmn, Appian, Maxi-
mus, Lysius and Pausanius, Greek histo
rians ; Lucian, a satirical writer ; Ilermo-
genes^ rhetorician of Tarsus.
Ecclesiastical.
180
Tschang Ileng, the Chinese astronomer.
Galen^ Greek physician ; Athceneus, a gram-
marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo-
rian.
The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius.
100. St. John dies at Ephesus, aet. 94.
107. Third persecution of the Christians b:f
Trajan.
10!:^. St. Ignatius devouied by wild beasts.
Pope Alexander I.
118. Fourth persecution of the Christians by
Adrian.
119. Pope Sixtus I.
126. Quadratusy bishop of Athens.
127. Pope Telesphorus.
130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada-
mites.
134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledge?
three Gods.
135. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers.
139. Pope Hygenus.
142. Pope Pius I.
Heresy of Valentine.
150. Pope Anicetus.
Canon of Scripture fixed about this time.
154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for
the Christians.
162. PopeSoter.
167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia.
171. Pope Eleutherus.
177. The Christians persecuted at Lycas.-
Theophilus, Tatian, and Montanaa.
185. Pope Victor I.
St. JrencBus.
— C/u'lsi'aii Era to Constaiitiiie.l
THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
53
Roman Empire.
102
116
117
120
126
130
.132
Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his
account of the Christians.— Great victories
of Trajan.
Trajan's expedition against the Parihians.
Seizure of Ctesiphon.
Armenia Major again governed by its own
kings dependent upon Rome.
Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an
earthquake.
Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years.
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of
^lia CapitoJina, and erects there a temple
to Jupiter.
The rebellion of the Jews cru.shed after a war
of five years. — The Jews banished from
Judea.
IGO
Embassy sent by Antoninus to China.
War with the Parthians, lasts 3 yeara.
100. The Huns emigrate westward.
101. Trajan reduces Dacia.
115. Massacre of the Greeks and Romans by
the Jews of Cyrene.
-Adrian.
120, — makes i progress through all the
121. provinces -visits Britain, builds there
a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.— A
wall built from the Rhine to the Danube.
133.-
-Antoninus Pius,
(eminent for his virtues and love of peace.)
140. Lollius Urbicus extends the Roman do-
minion in Britain, and erects a second ram-
part, called the Wall of Antoninus.
145. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans,
and Dacians.
140. — introduces the worship of Serapis into
Rome.
152. —stops the persecution of the Christians.
161.— Marcus Aurelius, ^g (Anto-
ninus,)
(the stoic philosopher.)
Escape of the thundering legion.
158. Plague over the whole known world.
169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome.
180. The emperor dies at Sirmium: sue*
ceeded by
• C o m m o d u s ,
(profligate and cruel ;) makes peace
with the Germans,
GOTHS in Dacia.
54
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period I. — 306 yem^.
208
Progress of Society, etc.
Ecclesiastical.
Papinian^ the greatest civil lawyer of anil-
quity — Julius Africanus, chronologer.
215 Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen-
ship to all the provinces, that they may be-
come liable to the taxes, inheritances, «fec.
197. Pope Zephyrinus.
202. Fifth persecution of the Christians under
Sevenis.—7'ertulliany an able defender of
Christianity.— CfeTncns, of Alexandria, and
Minutius Felix, C. F.*
217. Pope Calixtus I.
The Septuagint found in a cask.
235
5J42
249
250
Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla-
tonic philosophy at Alexandria.
Dio Cassius, Greek historian.
Censorius, a critic and grammarian.
Herodian, Greek historian.
Itonginus, philosopher and critic.
228. Pope Urban I.
234. Pope Pontianus.
235. Anterus.
Oriffen, C. F.
Sixth persecution of tlie Christians, under
Maximinus, in which Leonidas, IrencBus,
Victory Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar-
tyred.
244. Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Dionysiun
of Alexandria, C. F.
250. Pope St. Cornelius.
Seventh persecution of the Christlant
* Christian Father.
'—Christian Era to Constantine.l
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
55
Roman Empire.
189
East.
The SARACENS defeat the Romans.
223
226
PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Arlax
erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasida^).
Partliia tributary to Persia.
242
Gordiaii defeats the Persians under Sapor.
West.
189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light-
ning.
191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire.
192. Commodus assassinated by Martia and
Laetus.
193,
— Pertinax, f^
proclaimed by the Praetorian guards —
murdered after a reign of 3 months.— Tht;
empire bought by Diditis Julianus^ who
is put to death by order of the senate.
Septimus Severus ,^^
(governs with vigor.)
— defeats his competitors, Niger and Albi-
nus.
194. — besieges Byzantium.
202. — persecutes the Christians.
203 —his sons Caracalla and Geta go to Bri-
tain, where 50,000 Roman troops died oJ
plague.
The wall of Severus between the Forth
and the Clyde built.
211. Severus dies at York, in Britain.
Caracalla and Geta. ^g
Caracalla murders Geta.
212. — visits the provinces along the Danube.
— Wars with the Catti and Alemanni.
217, Caracalla is assassinated.
• M ac r i n u s ,
put to death by the soldiers.
218. Ileliogabalus, ^J
(a monster of vice and cruelty.)
222.- Alexander Severus ,^^
(a beneficent and enlightened prince.)
The Romans agree to pay an annual tri-
bute to the Goths, to prevent them from
molesting the empire.
22G. The victory of Severus over the Persians
at Tadmor.
235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the
army ; succeeded by
M ax i m i n u s ,
who defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians.
236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops
near Aquilea.
Balbinus and Gordian
241. The FRANKS first mentioned in
tory ; they invade Gaul.
244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum.
Gordian put to death by
-Philip , W(the Arabian,)-
who makes makes peace with Sapor.
247. The secular games restored.
1
!219.-
D e c i u s
persecutes the Christians.
2.50. —slam by the Goths, who invade the
I empire by crossing the Danube.
56
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Modern ; Peiiod I. — 306 years.
251
268
270
274
276
277
Progress op Society, etc.
Plotmus.
Odin in Scandinavia.
Ecclesiastical.
25!. St Ci/pn'an, bishop of Carthage.— Mo-
nastic liie oriLMuates about this time.
Dispute between the churches of Rome
and Africa about baptism.
Paulusj a Roman poet.
Longinus at the court of Zenobia.
Rome surrounded with a wall.
Longinus dies.
Porphyry^ the Greek philosopher and opposer
of Christianity.
Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra-
cian Franks in in Mediterranean and
Northern Seas.
28i
Diocletian's Orientalform of government —
the monarchy considered hereditary— nomi-
nation of Caesars as co-rulers.
Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches
of white marble, while the walls were
adorned with paintings.
259. Pope Dionysius.
262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, deriea the
divinity of Jesus Christ
2G9. Pope Felix L
272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian.
274. Pope Eutychianes.
Manes originates the heresy of the Mani-
cliaeans — rejects all the sacraments ; refuses
allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c.
283. Pope Caius.
The Jewish Talmud and Targum com-
Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reli-
gious ceremonies multiplied.— Pagan rites
imitated by the Christians.
286. Ilierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts
that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and
denies the resurrection.
-Christian Era to Constantme.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
57
Roman Empikb.
East.
HUNS on the Caspian Sea.
253.-
254.-
259
260
2(5i
264
269
273
The Persians victorious in Asia Minor.
Persia '.—Sapor's victory over the Roman
arms.
The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt.
Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and
Caesarea.
Odenatus, king of Palmyra— he is succeeded
by his wife.
Zen obi a, who reigns with the titles of
Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.'
Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia,
and Asia Minor.
Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who
destroys her magnificent capital, and carries
her to Rome.
—is successful against the Germans and
Goths.
256-69. Four great piratical expeditions of the
Goths into Asia Minor and Greece.
259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and
flayed alive by the Persians.
Period of the 30 tyrants.
The Persians penetrate to Ravenna.
264. Alliance with Odenatus.
267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths
and Scythians.
268. Gallienus killed at Milan.
defeats an army of 320,000 Goths.
269. —dies at Sirmium.
The Persians defeated by Probus,
West.
. Gallus^
251. _
purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con-
federacy of the Franks between the Rhine
and Elbe,
—a great pestilence prevails in the empire.
E m ili anu s. ^
Valerian.
-Gallienus.
-Claui^ius II.
■ Aurelian,
(a great warrior.)
271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni.
273. —reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist-
ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner.
274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to
obedience.
The Temple of the Sun U Rome burnt.—
Dacia given up to the barbarians.
275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium.
An interregnum of 6 months.
• Tacitus,
(a descendant of the historian,)
reigns with wisdom 6 months.
277.-
Probus,
(a warlike prince.)
—obtains several victories over the barba-
rians.—The Franks permitted by Probus to
settle in Gaul.
282. Probus slain by his soldiers.
C ar us '
killed by lightning.
Carinus and NumerianuE
(effeminate and cruel.)
288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies.
284.-
• D iocletian
sends ambassadors to China.
"The Era of Diocletian,'* or of "the
martyrs," August 29.
287. Britain usurped by Qarausius, who reigns
7 years. The empire attacked by the north-
em barbarians, and several provinces
usurped by tyrants.— Maximianus, a col-
league of the Emperor.
58
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Modem : Period I. — 306 years.
290
304
Proorbss op Society, etc.
The Gregorian code.
Gregory and Hermogenes^ lawyers ; EHus,
iSpartianus, a.nd Fb^tscMSj historians ; Tre-
bellius Polio.
312
323
330
3iO
357
Ecclesiastical.
296, Monks in Spain and Egypt.
Pope Marcellinus.
303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians.
304. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted
.^rom idolatry.
The prmtorian guard broken up by Constan-
tine.
Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine
the Great.— Celebrated dome of St Sophia :
the splendor of the court so great that it
cost more than the legions.
Constantinople becomes the seat of art and
literature.
MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.-170 ymrs.—
306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by
Constantius.
310. Pope Eusebius.
Arius excommunicated.
311. Pope Malchiades.
Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to
have flourished about this time.
Eutropitis and MarcelliniLS, historians ; Jam-
blicui and Eunapius, Greek historian.
314. Pope Sylvester I.
319, Toleration of Christianity by Constantine
the Great.
325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th,
325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops,
who condemn \xidt.mam.— Eusebius, bishop
of Caesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo-
rian. — Lactantiu^, Athanasius, Arius^
Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the
reign of Constantine.
336. Pope Marcus.
337. Pope Julius.
Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked,
the cross reverenced, and incense used by
the Christians.
341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by
Frumaintius.
356. Pope Felix II.
tSt. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of
Constantinople, an emment writer, C. F.—
Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthage. —
Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem.— Monasteries in
Thebais.
—Cfiristlan Era to Conslantitie.']
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
59
Roman Empire.
294
296
301
East.
Narses, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso-
potamia, and Assyria,
Alexandria taken by Diocletian.
Hormisdas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus.
From Constantine to Odoacer.
325
328
333
334
337
340
350
354
291. The Franks make themselves masters of
Batavia and Flanders.
293. The Franks expelled from Batavia.
296. Britain restored to the emperor.
304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em«
pire to
Constantius and Galeriua.
306.— Constantine the Great, HSf
(first Christian emperor.)
Licinitcs, Maxi7nian, and MaxentiuSt his
three colleagues.
Constantine defiiats the Franks.
312. Maxentius defeated and killed.
314. Civil war with Licinius.
319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris-
tianity.
321. —appoints the observance of Sunday.
322. — defeats and banishes Licinius, and be-
comes sole emperor.
325. —abolishes the combats of gladiators and
assemblies.
331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem-
ples to be destroyed.
The first general council at Nice.
The seat of government removed to Constan-
tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on
May Uth, 330.
Great famine and pestilence in Syria.
Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis-
persed over the empire.
Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons,
Constantius, Constans,and Constantine. f
150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an
earthquake.
Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an
extensive empire.
Gallus put to death by Constantius.
Constantius dies at Tarsus.
A disadvantageous peace with the Persians.
340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and
killed by Constans at Aquilea.
350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius.
357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at
Strasburg.
361.— Julian, the Apostate,
—attempts in vain to rebuild the temple
at Jerusalem.
363. —is slain in a war with the Persians.
•Jovian.
EASTERN EMPIRE
extending from the lower Danube to the con- 1
fines of Persia,
364. Death of Jovian, andthe accession of
Valentinian and Valens, under whom the
EMPIRE is DIVIDED :
WESTERN EMPIRE,
, extending from the Caledonian ramparta
to the foot of Mount Atlas.
60
THE WORLD'S PROGKESS.
[Modern: Period II. — 170 yean.
380
392
412
135
Progress of Society, etc.
AurelitLS Victor^ author of lives of celebrated
Romans.
Prudentitts and Ausonius, Latin poets;
Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe-
maticians.
Claudian, Latin poet.
Macrobius, Platonic philosopher.
Theodosiua establishes public schools, and at-
tempts the restoration of learning.
The Theodosian code published.
Ecclesiastical.
373. The Bible translated into the Gothic lan-
guage.
379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much
enlarged,
381, The second general Council of Constan-
tinople.
384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate
for Paganism against St. Ambrose.
385. Pope Syricius.
392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan-
tinople ; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan ;
St. Jerome, St. Martin, and >S'^. Augustine^
' Christian Fathers.'
Image worship. — The Christian hier-
archy begins.
401. Pope Innocent I.
412. Cyn7, bishop of Alexandria; Isidore and
Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosiua.
a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and
Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi-
nal sin, <fec.
416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the
African bishops.
417. Pope Zozimus,
418. Pope Boniface I.
422. Pope Celestine I.
429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ac-
knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ.
431. Third general Council at Ephesus.
432. Pope Sixtus III.
St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ire-
land.
435. Nestorianism prevails in the East.
440. Pope Leo I. (the Great).
443. The Manichman books burned at Rome.
445. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople.
— From Constantine to OdoacerJ]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
61
376
378
Eastbrn Empire.
■ V al e ns .
392
408
414
HUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by
the Huns, from whom it is named.— The
Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by
Valens to settle in Thrace.
Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near
Adrianople.
Theodosius the Great, ^^
a zealous supporter of Christianity.
Theodosius defeats Maximus,the tyrant of the
western empire.
Western Empire.
364. Valentinian I. W
elected by the army.
368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de-
feated by Theodosius.
■ G r a t i an '
gains a victory over the Germans; suc-
ceeds to the eastern empire on the death oi
Valens ; Maximus is proclaimed emperor.
— Gratian killed at Lyons.
379. The LOMBARDS iirst leave Scandina-
via, and defeat the Vandals.
-Valentinian II.
—is dispossessed by Maximus, but is re-
stored by Theodosius ; makes Treves his
capital.
384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a
Gaul, commander of the army.
■Theodo sius
becomes sole emperor of the East and West.
Complete down fall of Paganism.
Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul.
Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius.
• A r c a d i u s .
431
433
-Theodosius 11.^—
a child ; Athenius, minister.
Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria.
Persian War.
Armenia divided between the Persians and
Romans.
A great part of Constantinople destroy et I by
fire.
Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from
the western empire.
• H 0 n 0 r i u s
401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS.
403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho.
40G. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain,
Gaul, &c.
410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths
under Alaric.
412. Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain.
413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace.
414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Tou-
louse.
417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by
the Goths.
420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their
first king, on the lower Rhine.
424. — Valentinian III .® •
426. Britain evacuated by the Romans.
427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns.
428. ^tius, the Roman general, defeated by
the Franks and Goths.
Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con-
quests to the river Somme.
433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," forms
an immense empire from China to the At-
lantic.
437. iEtius defeats the Goths.
439. The kingdom of the Vandals in
Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who
takes Carthage and plunders Italy.
441. The Roman territories invaded by the
Huns, Persians and Saxons.
445. The famous embassy from Britain, soli-
citing aid against the Picts.
62
THE world's progress.
[Modern: Period II. — 170 t/ears.
Prooekss of Society, etc.
450
Zozimua and Olympiodorus, Grdek histo-
rians.
Ecclesiastical.
468 The principle established that every accused
person shall be tried by his peers, or equals.
Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain— Eric
being king, and founder of the Gothic mo-
narchy.
476
447. Eutyches asserts the existence of only
one nature in Jesus Christ.
449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa; and Eusebius,
bishop of Doryleum, deposed.
450. Sozomen and Theodoret, ecclesiastical
historians.
451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon,
at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianism
are solemnly condemned.
461, Pope Hilarius.
465, Pope Simplicius,
Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Oon-
stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru-
salem— all striving for the supremacy.—
The church now begins to assume a politi-
cal aspect.
The tottering empire of the west was finally
overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the
great event which precedes the middle or
^'•dark ages." The form of the old
Roman government remained— the senate,
the consuls, &c,— but Italy, ravaged by a
succession of wars, plagues, famines, and
every form of public tyranny and domestic
slavery, was nearly a desert.
—From Constantine to Odoacer.]
TIIE WORLD S PROGRESS.
G3
450
467
461
Eastern Empire.
; M a r c i an , "
a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual
tribute to the Huns.
Western Empire.
— Leo I . , (the Thracian,) '
first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch.
War with the Goths.
Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is received
from them as a hostage.
474
475
Z e n o .
448. Franks :— Merovoeus 1st, king of the Me-
rovingians.
^tius defeats the Huns.
451. The arrival of the Saxons
in Britain, under Hengist and Horsa.
452. The city of VENICE founded.
455. Valentinian assassinated by
-Petronius Maximus. ^g
A V i t u 8 , ^m
457.-
- M a j o r i a n .
458. Franks :— Childeric I., conquers as far
as the Loire and takes Paris.
-Se ve r u
461.—
467. A t h e n _
(The last three emperors slain by
Ricimer.)
468- Spain :— The Visigoths, under Eric, e
blish their kingdom.
472.-
O 1 y b i u s .
Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan-
tinople.
a turbulent reign: debaucheries and conspi-
racies.
Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths,
and invades the empire. He ravages
Thrace.
473.-
474.-
■ Glycerins.
■ Julius Nepos.
475.— Romulus A u g u s t u 1 u s . ^m
476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of
the Herulii :
END of the WESTERN EMPIRE.
1228 years after the building of Rome ; and
commencement of the kingdom of Italy un-
der Odoacer.
64
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
MODERN: PERIOD m.— 146 years.
486
493
408
513
514
616
629
530
631
533
538
Progress of Society, etc.
Rise of the feuded system in France^ under
Clovis.
Theodoric introduces the architecture of
Greece to improve the buildings of Italy.
Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba-
bylon.
Burgundian laws published, beingc a collec-
tion of the rights and customs of the Bur-
gundians.
The Salic law established in France.
Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher.
Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan-
tinople.
The Christian JEra proposed and introduced
by Dionysius, a monk.
The schools of Athens suppressed.
The fables of Pilpay translated into Pera.an.
Chess introduced into Persia from India..
Justinian's pandects and code of laws.
Architecture : the church of St Sophia built
at Constantinople.
Prooltis, a learned Platonist.
Ecclesiastical.
483. Pope Felix m.
—excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of
Constantinople,
484. Christians persecuted by Huneric, king
of the Vandals.
492. Pope Ge.asius I.
494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his auprt
macy.
496. Christianity introduced into France.
513. Christianity embraced by the Persian
king, Carbades.
514. Pope Hormisdas.
519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin.
523. Pope .John I.
525. The Arian bishops deposed.
526. Pope Felix IV.
Extreme Unction introduced.
.529. The Order of Benedictine monks in-
stituted at Mome Cassino, near Naples.
530. Pope Boniface II.
533. Pope John II.
53.5. Pope Agape tus.
536. " Sylvester I.
Separation of the Aimenians from the Greek
church.
538. Pope Vigilius.
THE world's progress. 65
— Odcacer to Mahomet. [The " Middle or Dark Ages'' begin here.]
Eastern Empire.
An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the
greater part of Constantinople.
Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul.
Anastasius I.
The Green and Blue factions.
The emperor's persecution of the Catlio-
lies, and j)rotection of the Manichoeans, oc
casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus.
The empire ravaged and the imperial army
destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia.
Long walls built to protect Constantinople
from the Bulgarians.
A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000
killed.
Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose
fleet is consumed "by the burning glass of
Proclus.
Anastasius killed by lightning.
-Justin I .
a peasant of Dalmatia.
Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire.
-Justinian I.
celebrated for his code of laws and the
victories of his generals, Bclisariiis
and Narses.
Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos-
roes.
-quells a conspiracy in Constantinople.
-defeats the Vandals in Africa,
-subdues Sicily,
-takes Naples.
-takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in
Italy.
-the Huns in Thrace, and
Europe, generally.
481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,^ founder
of the French monarchy.
484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain.
485. France :— Battle of Soissona
gained by Clovis.
487. Britain :~The Saxons defeated by Prince
Arthur and Ambrosius.
490 :— Italy :— ravaged by the barbarians.
Britain : — kingdom of Sussex.
491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia.
493. I ta 1 y :— c 0 n q u e r e d by Theo-
doric, king of the Ostrogoths. — Odoa-
cer put to death.
499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with
Theodoric in Italy.
500. Burgundy becomes his tributary.
507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers.
510. France : — Clovis makes Paris his capital.
511. France: — Clovis dies.
-C h i 1 d e b e r t I .
512. The IIERULII settle in Thrace.
516. The Christian Era adopted.
517. Get re ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c.
519. Britain :— Prince Arthur defeated at
Cliarford by Cerdic, who begins the third
Saxon kingdom of Wessex.
522. Spain :— Amalaric, the first Gothic kin^,
who establishes his court in Spain— his capi-
tal, Seville.
530. Britain :— kingdom of Essex.
531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric
532. Burgundy conquered by Childebert.
536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surren*
ders his possessions in Gaul to the French
king.
537. Italy conquered by Belisarius,
66
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period III. — 146 years.
561
558
559
580
584
686
588
596
597
Proorbss of Society, bto.
The manufacture of silk introduced from
China by the monks.
Procopius, a Roman historian— the last of the
classic writers.
The Saxon laics; the king's authority limit-
ed by the Wittenagemot.
Three orders ; the noble^ the free, and the
servile.—Trial by ordeal.
Christianity mtroduced among the Picts by
Columbi.
The old Roman municipal system in Italy
overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards
— and the feudal system established.
Written laws compiled among the nations of
German origin— first by the Visigoths in
Spain.
Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi-
tecture of churches, with much grotesque
sculpture.
The Latin language ceases to be spoken in
Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in
Spain.
The origin of fief s.
The Roman Catholic faith established in
Spam.
Gregory of Tours, the father of French his-
tory.
Bretwalda, king of England, converted to
Christianity.
Agathus, a Grecian historian.
Gildas, the first British historian.
Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian.— Cassjo«fo-
rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to
Theodoric.
The Saxons, having conquered England, it
relapsed, in a gieat measure, into the state
of barbarism, from which it had been par-
tially raised by the Romans,
Ecclesiastical.
540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged
but one will in Jesus Christ.
552. The Fifth general Council at Constanii
nople.
555. Pope Pelagius I.
557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, built
at Paris.
560. Pope John III.
The Tritheists acknowledge three Goda,
and deny the resurrection.
.573. Pope Benedict I.
575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria.
Great increase of miracles.
578. Pope Pelagius II.
590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great.
The doctrme of purgatory first taught.—
Mass introduced.
598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can-
terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain.
604. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian.
606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head
of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni-
versal Bishop assumed.
The Waldenses refuse submission to
Rome.
'^FVom Odoacer to MahoTnet.]
THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
67
540
542
548
549
552
554
561
562
563
574
576
578
Eastern Empire.
Vitiges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor-
sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern
empire.
Plague at Constantinople — during three
months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily.
The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The
Turkish monarchy founded in Asia.
Siege of Petra.
Narses defeats and kills Totila.
Italy governed by Greek exarchs.
A plague extending over Europe and Asia,
and lasting nearly 50 years.
Belisarius disgraced by Justinian.
" restored: — he quells a conspiracy.
Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly
destroyed.
Justinian dies.
Justin 11.^
Belisarius dies in prison.
The TURKS first mentioned in history.—
They send embassies to Justin, and form
an alliance.
Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov-
ernment.
Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia.
-Tiberius T I .
570-
tJOO
Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his
reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and
almost to the Caspian Sea,
The Avars flourish under Baian — invade the
Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary,
Poland, and Prussia.
— P h 0 c a s, ^^— a centurion, elected king
The empire invaded by the Persians.
Europe, generally.
539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence.
The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths.
542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in
Cornwall.
550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first
duke and legislator. His brother, Zech,
first duke of Bohemia.
The Greeks form settlements on the
Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia.
556. Civil wars in France.
558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . @
559. Britain :— t h e Saxon Heptar-
chy commences.
560. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbria,
formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira.
— Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues most of
the Saxon kings.
561. France :— C haribert I.@
565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence.
568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under
Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia.
571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex.
575. " East Anglia formed into a kin^.
dom, and called Angle-land, whence the on.
gin of the name England.
583. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi-
goths.
France :— C lotaire II. ,__
586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded.
Spain :— Recared, king.
588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire.
589. Rome inundated by the Tiber.
591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains
the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda
III.
Italy:— the Lombards, under Autharis,
successful against the Greeks and Franks.
595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by
the Sclavonians.
596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgundy.
597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St.
Augustine.
600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians.
607. Britain :— Supremacy of the Pope ac-
knowledged.
68
THE world's progress. [Modern : Period ///.— 146 years
Progress op Society, etc.
The aristocracy acquire great power in
France, somewhat restrained by the mayors
of the palace.
Rites and superstitions increase in all Europe.
— Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita-
nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning
of candles by day. — Exorcisms^ «fec.
Hereditary jiefs. — Aristocratic class.
615 Sccundus, historian of the Lombards.
617 Elhelbert publishes the first code of laics in
England.
632
Ecclesiastical.
606. Pope Boniface III.
607. Pope Boniface IV.
The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to God,
the Virgin, and the Saints.
609. The Christians massacred by the Jews at
Antioch.
618. Pope Boniface V.
MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 ^/ears.
Progress of Society, etc.
Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and
philosopher.
Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta-
blished in the East. In the Caliphs were
united the highest spiritual and regal autho-
rity.
Christianity introduced into China.
In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti-
cal architecture; circular arches intro-
duced; churches built at Canterbury, Glas-
tonbury, St. Albans, Winchester, &c.
In civil architecture, forts and castles— Conis-
borough Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown
in Derbyshire, «fec.
University of Cambridge founded.
Some of the monasteries of Europe continue
to be the repositories of learning and the
arts.
Celibacy of the clergy enjoined.
Ecclesiastical.
625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for
splendid cathedrals and processions.
Monks and monasteries increase.
Africa and Asia, with the churches of
Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to
the Christian world by the progress of Mo-
hammedanism.
640. Pope Severinus.
610. Pope John IV.
642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title
of " Sovereign Pontiff."
644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of
the clergy.
Separation between the Greek and
Roman churches.
654. Pope Eugenius.
657. Pope Vitalian. He established the uni-
versal use of the Latin language in tht
service of the church.
672. Pope Adeodatus.
-From Odoacer to Mahomet.^
THE world's progress.
69
610
612
614
Eastehn Empire.
Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas,
and makes himself king.
MAHOMET publishes his Koran.
Syria ravaged by the Arabs.
Jerusalem taken by the Persians.
Constantinople taken and pillaged by the
Avari.
Europe, generally.
604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by
Elhelbert, king of Kent.
612. Britain :—Ethelfrith, king of Northum-
bria, defeats the Britons, and destroys the
monastery of Bangor.
615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna.
617. Britain: — St. Peter's (now Westminster
Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent.
Britain :— Bretwald IV.
-From Mahomet to Charlem(mne.
[Dark Ages, continiLed.\
632
633
6'34
636
641
642
647
653
659
661
668
670
673
Eastern Empire, Asia, &c.
TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from
Mecca to Medina.
Era of the Mahometans.
Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos-
roes.
Death of Mahomet.
Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the
Saracens.
Omar, caliph.
" takes .Jerusalem, which is held
by the Saracens 463 years.
Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys
another lamous library.
Constantine III.
-Constans 11.,^
(11 years of age.)
The Saracens become masters of Africa and
Cyprus^
The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the
Colossus.
Persia becomes a part of the empire of the
Caliphs.
The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by
agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly.
Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the
Treasury.
Moawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi-
tal.
Constantine IV. ^g invades Sicily.
Grand Cairo founded.
Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens,
whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek Jire of
Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur-
chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a
yearly tribute.
Europe, generally.
628. France :— D a g o b e r t I . W He
builds the church of St. Deny, the burial
place of the French kings.
631. Samo. a merchant of France, makes
himself king of Bohemia.
633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embracea
Christianity.
634. Britain :— Bretwald VI.
638. France — C 1 o v i s II .^^5 years old.
The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years
old,) being king of Austrasia.
642. Britain:— Bretwald VII.
644. Britain :— The University of Cambridga
founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia.
Mercia converted to Chris-
656. France :— C 1 o t a i r e III. w
650. Britain:
tianity.
660. France:— Childeric II
663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke
of Beneventura.
672. The Saracens driven from Spain, bf
Wamba, king of the Goths.
70
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period IV. 178 years.
Progress op Society, etc.
Stone buildings and glass come into use in
England.
The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of
Gilling founded.
The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization
and power, by the introduction of Chris-
tianity.
In France, the Teutonic language supersedes
the Latin.—National assemblies established,
though confined to the aristocracy.
In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to
the Mohammedan.
Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain.
Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist.
The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian.
A king first elected in Poland.
Adhelm, the first British writer in prose and
verse.
Sclavonian republics in Bohemia.
Christianity greatly extended among the Ger-
man nations and other people in the north
of Europe; but almost exterminated in
Africa, by the progress of Mohammedan-
ism.
Ecclesiastical.
The art of making paper brought from Sa-
marcand by the Arabs.
George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist.
Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina.
676. Pope Domnus.
The popes become independent of the
Greek emperor.
679. Pope Agatho.
680. The sixth general Council at Constantino-
pie, called by the emperor Constantine, who
presides.
682. Pope Leo II. He usurps tha right of in-
vestiture.
684. Pope Benedict II.
685. « John V.
686. " Conon.
687. " Sergius.
701. Pope John V..
704. The first province ^jiven to the pope.
705. Pope John VII.
708. " Sissinius (20 days).
708. " Constantine.
711. Custom of kissing the Pope's foot intro
duced.
ri4. Pope Gregory II.
Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pro-
cure the assassination of the Pope. Tha
Romans defend him.
— Pi'om Mahomet to Charlemagne.^
THE world's progress.
n
G80
uS-l
695
097
098
716
Eastern Empire, Asia, &c.
673. France :— T h i e r r y I . ®
675. Spain :—Wamba gains a naval victory
over the Arabs, who attempt to invade his
kingdom.
The kingdom of Bulgaria fomided.
Yezid, caliph of the Saracens.
Moawiah II., caliph.
Abdallah, caliph.
Justinian 1 1 . ^w
Abdulmelek, caliph. He discojuinues the
tribute to the Greek emperor
Justinian II. deposed, and his nose cut off by
Leonitius, who is also deposed by
Absimerus Tiberius.
Armenia and the provinces between the IJlack
and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul-
melek.
Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa
completely subjugated.
Justinian II. restored.
Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain.
Africa subdued by the Saracens.
Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes,
who reigns under the name of Philippicus.
-Anastasius II .^m
Theodosius III. ipf pro-
claimed by the revolted army ofAnastasius.
— Leo III., (the Isaurian,) \
of a shoemaker.
Europe, generally.
682. Spain:
monk.
-Waml)a abdicates and tunw
690. France :— P epin d'HeristeJ ,^|^
mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia,
Qefeats Thierry, and becomes king.
691. France :— C 1 o v i s III .^-
695. " — Childebert II.
698. Poland :— Cracow founded.— An elective
monarchy established.
Venice :— Luc Anafetto, first Doge.
700. Britain :— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy.
France :— Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro-
vence become separate dukedoms.
705. Britain :— Alfred the Wise, in North'
umbria.
710. Spain : — R o d e r i c , king,
last of the Goths.)
711. France :— D a g o b e r t II.'
' (the
the
713. Spain conquered by
Saracens under Muca. By the mar-
riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow
of the Gothic king, the two nations are
united in interest.
714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aus-
trasia.
715. France :— C h i 1 d e r i c II. ^
716. Britain :— Ethelbald, king of Mercia.
718. Spain :— Pelagius founds the kingdom of
Asturias.
720. France :— T h i e r r y II,
72
THE world's progress.
[Modern: Period IV. — 178 years.
731
735
740
742
748
757
760
783
785
793
7^
Progrbss of Society, etc.
Increasing
power,
spiritual
and
temporal
of the
Popes.
Dark
period
of
European
literature.
Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos-
pel to the Prisons.
The venerable Bede dies— a grammarian, phi-
losopher, historian, and theologian.
The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en-
courage learning.
Fredegaire, a French historian.
Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic,
for believing in the existence of antipodes.
An organ sent by Constantine to France.
John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas-
tic philosophy.
Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory
of Tours.
The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria,
Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas-
sidae caliphs.
Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character-
ized the age preceding Charlemagne.
The first palm-tree planted in Spain.
Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the
caliph Haroun al Raschid.
Pleadings in courts of justice first practised.
Foundation of schools in monasteries and
cathedrals, by Charlemagne.
The Gregorian chant.
The Synod of Frankfort.
George, the monk.
Ecclesiastical.
726. Image worship being forbidden by tha
emperor Leo, causes great disturbance.
727. Peter's pence first collected in England.
728. Leo orders the pope to be seized.
730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor.
The Iconoclasts, or image breakers.
731. Pope Gregory III.
73G. The images throughout the empire de-
stroyed by order of the emperor.
Monks persecuted.
741. Pope Zachary
752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of
France, by a papal decree.
752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom-
bards, assisted by Pepin.
754. —he journeys to Pepin to implore his
protection.
755. Conimencement of the Pope's
temporal power under the auspices
of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex-
archate of Ravenna.
757. Pope Paul I.
768. Stephen IV.
769. Council of the Lateran.
770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the
emperor.
772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias-
tical state is conferred by Charlemagne.
770. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char-
lemagne, for the support of the clergy,
churches, schools, ana the poor.
785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by
Charlemagne.
787. The seventh general Council at Nice, m
which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was
condemned.
794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for
confirmation.
Masses said for money.
— From Mahomet to Charkmagne.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
73
741
746
Eastern Empire, Asia, <fec.
The Arabs invest Constantinople by land with
120,000 men, and by sea with 1800 ships.
The city is saveil by the Greek fire— the
Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed.
Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily.
The Greek possessions in Italy are lost in con-
sequence of the edict forbidding image wor-
ship.
Constantine V. (Copronymus).
The Arabs defeated by Constantine.— Rhodes,
Cypriis, and Antioch capttired.
Europe, generally.
762
766
725. France :— Charles Martel crosses the
Rhine, and subdues Bavaria.
727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the
tax called Peter's pence, to support a col-
lege at Rome.
732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great
victory over the Saracens near Tours.
740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re-
covered by the Pope.
742. France :— C h i 1 d c r i c III. ^8
752. France :— End of the Merovingian line
of French kings.
-Pepin 1 e B re f ,^^
first of tlie Carlovingian line.
^53. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large
army against the Lombards.
Italy :— Ravenna a dukedom.
50. Spain:— Separated from the Caliphate:
A b d e r h a m a .
701. Spain :— Froila, grandson of Pelagius,
Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of his
it his capital. kingdom.
Asia Minor ravaged by the Turks,
774 Great victory over the Bulgarians.
rro L e o IT .®
781
785
786
788
793
Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus).^^
Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship.
Tiie empire is invaded by II a f o u n a 1
R a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad.
Constantine imprisons his mother, Irene, for
her cruelty.
-I r e n e ^
and assumes the sole power,
—proposes to marry Charlemagne,
— IS dethroned by Nicephorus.
The Saracens ravage Thrace.
puts him to death,
768. France :— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles
the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo-
man, until 771.^
77!. Charlcmasrne invades Italy; defeats
J) idler, king of Lombardy, and annexes
l(alv to his empire.
End of the Lombard king-
(1 o in .
778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated
at Roncesvalles.
779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia,
and the Saxons.
Charlemagne conquers the Avari.
—attempts to unite the Rhine and the
Danube.
7S7. Britain :— First recorded invasion of the
Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikmgs.
794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns.
Sweden conquered by Iva Vianimo.
74
THE world's progress.
PERIOD, v.— TAe Middle Ages.— 2m yeary
A.D. ' PROaRESS OF SOCIETY.
Ecclesiastical.
Agriculture and horticul-
ture encouraged by Charle-
magne ; both flourish in
Spain under the caliphs.
Gold mines worked in Spain.
Paul Warejredus (Diaconus)
the historian.
Ilaroun al Raschid, courting
hi.s alliance, presents Charle-
magne with a striking clock.
This clock was adorned with
automaton figures, which
moved and played on va-
rious musical instruments.
Fine Arabian breed of horses
introduced into Spain.
Alcuin, of York, a pupil of
Bede, forms schools at Tours
—patronized by Charle-
magne.
Transient revival of learning
under Charlemagne.
Eginhard, historian, secre-
tary to Charlemagne.
The reign of Mamun (caliph)
is regarded as the Augustine
age of Arabian literature.
St. Mark's Church at Venice
built.
Turpin, archbishop, to whom
is attributed the famous
"Z>« Vila Caroli Mag?ii et
Jiolandi."
800. The Pope separates from
the £! as tern Empire, and
becomes supreme Bishop of
the Western.
Charlemagne reforms the
church.
Many bishoprics founded.
—Great increase of monastic
institutions.
813 Insurrection
against the pope.
at Rome
BIG. Pope Stephen V.
817. " Paschal I.
The College of Cardinals
founded.
824. Pope Eugenius II.
Christianity in Denmark
and Sweden.
827. Pope Valentine.
8^«. " Gregory IV.
Missionaries sent from
France to Sweden.
831. Paschasius Radbertus, a
monk of Corbey, father of
the doctrine of transub-
stantiation. This doctrine
disowned by the English
Church.
Ratramus and Scotus Eri-
genciy theologians, holding
much the same opinions as
I.uther.
New Western Empire.
800. NEW EMPIRE of the
WEST founded by Charle-
magne, who is crowned at
Rome, by the pope, king of
Italy, Germany, and France.
SU2. Charlemagne receives an
embassy from Nicephorus,
and from Haroun al Ras-
chid.
806. Charlemagne di-
vides the empire be-
tween his three sons.
808. First descent of the NOR
MANS upon France.
813. Charlemagne dies, Jan.
28.
814. L o u i s I . W
(Debonaire) an inglorious
and turbulent reign.
817. Louis divides the empire
between his three sons.
820. Invasion of the Normans.
833. Lothaire, a fourth son of
Louis, associated in the gov-
ernment.
840. — L o t h a i r e .
841. —defeated by his brotfiers,
Louis and Charles, in the
battle of Fontenoy.
Division of the empire.
France :—C h a r 1 e s I.^s
(the Bald).
Ger. :— L o u i s I . ^S
— surnamed the Ger-
Italy :— L o t h a i r e ^S
with imperial dignity.
The Normans plunder
Rouen, and advance to Paris,
THE world's progress,
(a. d. 800-1056.) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueroi'.
75
A.D. Eastern Empire.
802
sua
821
822
829
England.
The World, elsewhere
01. DENMARK become^ a
kingdom under Gotricua
— N icephorus .^^ —
The Saracens ravage Asia
Minor, capture Cyprus, and
compel Nicephorus to pay a
tribute.
— Michael 1 . 1^
(Caropaltes) ; at war with
the Bulgari.
Earthquakes, famine, fire, «&c.
ravage the empire.
—Michael 1 1 . W
(Balbus or the Stammerer).
Constantinople besieged by
the Saracens. The Bulga-
rians raise the siege. The
Saracens obtain possession
of Crete, and name it Can-
dia.
-Theophilus. @ —
-Michael III.
(the Drunkard).
813. Egbert, king of Wessex,
defeats the Britons.
827. The seven king-
doms of the Hep.
tarchy united by Eg-
bert, king of Wessex,
under the name of ENG-
LAND, or the Land of the
Angles.
E g b e r t . @
Invasion of the Danes.
38. —Ethel wolf,®—
a weak prince.
Scotland :— Kenneth, king
of the Scots, defeats and ex-
tirpates the Picts, and be-
comes sole monarch.
The Danes return, and
ravagre the country unmo-
lested, and burn the city of
London.
Ethelwolf makes a pilgri- '
mage to Rome. I
818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa-
tron of learning.
820. First dismemberment of
the Arabian monarchy. The
dynasty of the Taherites
founded at Khorassan.
826. The Danish prince, Ha-
rold, is baptized at Ingel-
heim.
833. Motassim, caliph. Ho
builds Saumora, which he
makes the seat of govem«
ment.
76 THE world's progress. [Period V.—{a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years
A.D. Progress of Society.
The aristocratic Feudal s^
tern in all its power. Here-
ditary nobility, which, with
the clergy, was the domi
nant order in the state.
The barons indepetident of
the king. Gradual intro-
duction of the Roman and
common law.
First enclosure of lands at
Spalding, where Richard de
Rules does much to improve
agriculture.
Clocks brought to Constanti-
nople from Venice.
The Faroe Isles, and Iceland
discovered in this century.
Ecclesiastical.
844. Pope Sergius III. {Bucca
Porci).
Ignatius, patriarch of
Constantinople.
Persecution of the Chris-
tians in Spain.
847. Pope Leo IV.
850. Christianity propagated
by Auscharius in Denmark
and Sweden.
855. Pope Benedict III.
858. Pope Nicholas I.
First coronation of a pope.
859. Eulogius, archbishop ol"
Cordova, martyred.
8G0. The schism of the Greeks
begins.
864. The Bible translated into
Slavonian.
867. Pope Adrian II.
8th Council at Constan-
tinople.— Photius, patriarch
of Constantinople, deposed.
872. Pope John VIII.
France, Spain, Germany.
855. Lothario retires to a mo-
nastery and dies.
New division of the em-
pire at Mersen.
856. Germ. :—L o u i s Il.^g
has Italy with the nn-
perial dignity.
—establishes his court at
Pavia.
858. France invaded by Louia
the German, who is finally
compelled to retire.
882. Pope Martin II.
. " Adrian III.
885. " Stephen VI.
868. Lorraine annexed to
France.
877. Fr. :— L o u i s ]
(the Stammerer).
79. L o u i s II
C a r 1 o m a n ^g-
reign jointly.
884. France :— C h a r 1 e s^
the Fat, an usurper.
885. Paris besieged by the
Normans ; gallantly defend-
ed by archbishop Goslin.
886. Charles makes a disgrace-
ful peace with the Normans.
887. Germany : — A mold,
emperor, ^gf (the im-
perial dignity transferred
from France to Germany).
888. France :— E u d e s .@-
-Charlemagne to William /.]
THE world's progress.
77
W4
867
886
Eastern Empire.
Decline of the Caliphate be-
gins.— Jews and Christians
persecute- 1. — Frequent wars
between the Greeks and Sa-
racens.
Bazil I. W
(the Macedonian), defeats
the Saracens.
Crete and the Sicilies reco-
vered from the Arabs.
Uasil commences the Mace-
donian dynasty.
Publication of the Basilica.
Leo V I . ^
(the philosopher).
England.
849. Alfred the Great, born.
852. Ethelwolf defeats the
Danes in the Isle of Thanet.
857. E t h e 1 b a 1 d and E t h e 1-
bert ^^— reign jointly : —
increase the influence of the
clergy.
860. —Ethel rcd.*^
867. The Danes conquer Nor-
thumberland.
872. Alfred the Great^
defeats the Danes.
879. Alfred abandoned by his
subjects, retires to the Isle of
Athelney, but soon draws
together his friends and con-
quers the Danes.
The World, elsewhere.
845. The Normans plunder
Hamburg, and penetrate into
Germany.
846. The Saracens destroy the
Venetian fleet, and besiege
Rome.
849. —defeated by the Pope's
allies.
851. Sardinia and Corsica ra-
vaged by the Saracens.
856. The coasts of Holland
plundered by the Normans.
860. Gorm the Elder, (descend-
ed from Odin.) unites Jut-
land and the Danish Isles,
and becomes king of Den-
mark.
861. Iceland discovered by the
Normans.
m^. RUSSIA: — Ruric, first
grand Prince, builds the city
of Lagoda.
868. Ecypt throws off its de-
pendence on the caliphs, un-
der Ahmed.
874. Iceland, a republic, found-
ed by the Normans.
875. NORWAY : — Harold
Harfrage, first king.
886. The Scythians seize Cro.
atia.
889. Hungary : — Arnad lays
the foundation of tne king«
dom.
78 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066. )~266 year:^.
A.D. Progress of Society.
Oxford University found-
ed.— Alfred the Great esta-
blishes a regular militia
and navy, and the mode of
trial by jury ; institutesyaeVs
and markets. — Johannes
Scotus Erigena, a learned
philosophical writer.
England divided into coun-
ties, hundreds, and tithings.
The county courts, held
monthly, become the great
safeguard of the civil rights
of Englishmen.
Hired troops substituted for
the feudal.
Ecclesiastical.
929
933
939
94.0
The University of Cam-
bridge Ibundeu.
The Anglo-Saxon monarchy
rises into importance.
Azophi, Arabian astronomer.
Printing invented among the
Chinese (1)
Cordova, in Spain, becomes
the seat of Arab learning,
science, industry, and com-
merce. Its celebrated schools
of geometry.astronomy, che-
mistry and medicine, toge-
ther with its equally cele-
brated poets and philoso-
phers, render it famous
throughout the world.
Luitprand, the historian.
Mints established in Kent or
Wessex.
891. Pope Formosus.
896. " Boniface VI.
" Stephen VII.
)8. " John IX.
Veneration for saints and
a passion for relics prevail.
900. Pope Benedict IV.
903. « Leo V.
905. " Sergius III.
912. The Normans in France
embrace Christianity.
914. Pope John X.
France, Germany, &c.
921. The Bohemians embrace
Christianity.
928. Pope Leo VI.
929. '' Stephen VIII.
Eudes, monk of Cluni.
931, Pope John XI.
Mere children elevated to
the highest offices in the
church.
936. Pope Leo VII.
939. « Stephen IX.
943. Pope Martm III.
90. Arnold, emperor of Ger-
many, takes Rome.
98. Fr. .-Charles III.^
(the Simple).
99. Ger. :— L o u i 3 III.®
Invasion of the Hunga-
rians.
Contests between the no-
bles and bishops
912. France :— R o b e r t , duke
of Normandy.
The Normans, under
R o 1 1 o , establish them-
selves in Normandy.
Ger. :— Conrad I.^^
(the empire becomes
elective).
919 Ger. .-—Henry I.^^—
(the Fowler), first ol the
Saxon line.
921. France :— Robert L de-
feated and killed by his
brother at Soissons.
923. France :— Rudolph elect-
ed duke.
Italy :■— Hugo, count of
Provence, oppresses the aris-
tocracy, who call to their aid
Berenger.
France : — Civil wars.
929. " —Charles dies a
prisoner at Peronne.
36. Ger. :— O the I .
(the Great).
Fr. :— L o u i s IV.
(the Stranger).
940. Burgundy, a fief of the
empire.
— Charlemagne to William L]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
79
890
897
904
910
Easteun Empire.
Southern Italy subject to the
Greek empire.
War with the Bul<r<Mrians,
Lombards, and S.iracens —
the latter take the i.sland of
Samos.
Russian expedition under
Oleg, against Constantino-
ple.
-Constantine VII. %^
associates his four sons, so
that there are five emperors.
917
919
937
^12
945
Constantinople besieged by the
Bulgarians.
Romanus, general of the fleet,
usurps the empire, with his
three sons, Christopher, Ste-
phen, and
-Constantine VIII. ^P-
Romanus gains a naval victory
over the Russians, who, led
by Igor, enter the Black
Sea with 10,000 ships or ca-
noes.
Naples annexed to the cmpne.
The empress Helen usurps the
throne.
891. Invasion of the Danes.
The first land tax.
901. E d w a r d^^
(the Elder), the first who
takes the title of " Rex An-
glorum."
War with the Danes.
The World, elsewhere.
924. —A I h e 1 s t a n . W—
93^1. —by the victory of Bru-
nanburch, he becomes king
of all Britain.
900. Scotland : — Constan tine
III.
901. Italy :— The republics
of Venice and Genoa
founded.
908. The race of Fatimites in
Egypt.
910. Spain :— Kingdom of Leon
founded by Garcia.
912. Spain :— Abderrahman III
the greatest Arab prince oi
Sjpain— builds the splendid
city and palace of Zehra.
914. Spain :— Ordogno II., king
of Oviedo, makes Leon his
capital.
Commencement of the
heroic age in Spain.
921. Poland :—Lesko IV.
" — Zemormysl.
923. Spain :—Fruela, king of
Leon.
924. " — Alphonzo IV.
927. " — Ramiro II.
930. Denmark :— Harold VI.,
firs' Christian king.
932. A.rnolf of Bavaria, de-
feated near Verona.
933. Norway :— Eric, king—
his cruelty leads the people
to revolt.
940. — E d m u n d 1 .1
brother of Athclstan.
940. Spain :— Ramiro, king of
Leon, defeats the Moors, un-
! derAb<lerrahman,inthebat'
1 tie of Simancus.
80 THE WORLD^S PIIO'^RESS. [Pcrio</ J'.— (a. D. 800-lOGG.)— 266
years.
A.D. Progress of Society.
The mercantile character
raised by a law of Athelstan,
that a merchant who made
three voyages over the high
seas with a ship and cargo
of his own, should enjoy the
rank and privileges of a
thane.
The figures of arithmetic
brought into Europe by the
Saracens.
Silver mines in the Ilartz
Mountains.
Manufactories of linens and
woolleyis in Fla7idcrs^ which
becomes the seat of western
commerce.
Geher, Arabian astronomer.
Suidas, grammarian and lexi
cographer.
Rhazes, Arabian physician.
The Saxonfieet^ consisting of
3G0 sail, in three squadrons,
makes the circuit of the
island, under the command
of king Edgar.
Ecclesiastical.
France, Germany, «fec.
Abbo, monk and astronomer.
Albirujiius, Arabian geogra-
pher.
Greenland discovered by tlie
Norwesians.
Almoin, historian.
Dublin much frequented for
trade, also many places on
the Baltic.
946. Pope Agape tus II.
955. Baptism of Olga, and con-
version of Russia to Chris-
tianity.
956. Pope John XII.
Quarrel with the emper-
ors respecting investiture.
959. Sf. Dunstan, archbishop
of Canterbury, attempts to
reform the church— enforc-
ing clerical celibacy.
The influence of the
monks greatly increased.
963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by
Roman citizens.
950. Germany : — Bohemia be-
comes tributary to Otho.
953. The Hungarians sub-
dued.
951. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.^
— confers the dukedoms of
Burgundy and Aquitaine on
Hugh the Great.
957. Germany :— Otho defeats
the Slavonians in Saxony,
964. Benedict V. elected by a
council.
965. John XIII.
Poland receives Christianity
under Miecislus.
972. Pope Benedict VI.
973. Boniface VII. : deposed
and bani^^hed for his crimes.
974. Domnus II.
975. Benedict VII.
984. Pope John XIV.
986. " John XV.
989. Christianity propagated
in Rusfsia by Waldimir —
they hold to the Greek
church.
961. Italy united to tlie empire
of Germany.
Tuscany becomes a duke-
dom.
973. Ger. :— Otho 11.^
subdues the Bohemians.
979. Otho at war with Lo-
thaire.
983. —Otho III. , W —
(3 years of age),
986. Fr. :— T. o u i s V . ,^—
("the Slothful,") lastol the
Carlovingian race.
988. Fr.: Hugh Capet,W
—founder of the third or
Capet ian line of French
kings.
— Charlemagne to William 7.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
Eastern Empire.
%7
969
Constantine III. retires into a
cloister.
— R o m a n u s I
poisoned by his wife,
phano.
England, «fec.
The World, elsewhere.
980
-N i c e p h 0 r u s
— he recovers Cyprus and An-
tioch from the Saracens.
— is murdered by
John Zimisces.^^ —
Basil and Constantine
VIII. m —
Apulia and Calabria recover-
ed and united to the empire.
946. E Id red®
governed by Dvniswn, abbot
of (Jlasiunbury.
952. Scotland: — Malcolm I.,
king.
955. Scotland :— Indulf, king.
955. E d w y W
insulted by Dunstan, and
deposed — his queen, Elgiva,
put to death.
959. E d g a r ®
marries the beautiful El-
frida, after the violent death
of Athelwold, her lover.
960. Scotland :— DufT, king.
Wolves expelled from
England and Wales, in con
sequence of a reward being
offered for the purpose by
the king.
Violent disputes between
the monks and the clergy,
975. E d w a r d
(the martyr), murdered by
his stepmother, Elfrida.
978. -Ethelred II., W"
(" the Unready.")— Dunstan
still minister. — The people
become discontented.
985. Danish invasion, under
Sweyn.
The king purchases their
retreat.
950. Spain :— Ordono III., king
of Leon.
955. Spain :—Sancho I., king
of Leon.
958. Italy :- War between tht
Normans and Saracens.
961. Candia recovered from
the Saracens.
962. Poland: — Miecislas esta-
blishes Christianity,
967. Spain :— Ramiro III., king
of Leon.
968. The Northmen devastate
Galicia, but are defeated and
almost exterminated.
973. Hungary : — St. Stephen,
first hereditary king, extends
the kingdom eastward ; gives
it a constitution and written
laws.
976. Spain :— Ilixem, caliph
of Cordova.
Almansor, regent, obtains
many victories over the
Christians.
980. Russia : — Waldimir I ;
marries Anna, sister of the
emperor Basil II.
983, Italy :— Venice distracted
by violent commotions.
985. Sweyn I., or Sweno, kmg
of Denmark, invades Eng-
land.
82 THE world's progress. [Period V.—{a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years.
A.D, PRoaaEss OF Society.
i024
Venice and Genoa carry on a
flourishing trade between
Asia and Western Europe.
Stephen, duke of Hunga-
ry, propagates Christianity
among his subjects.
Paper made of cotton rags.
Spain, the seat of Arabian and
Jewish learning.
Churches first built in the
Gothic style.
Foundation of the House of
Wisdom at Cairo.
The French language first be-
gins to be written.
Leo^ the grammarian.
The arts faintly revive in Italy
— paintings in fresco and
mosaic.
Literature, the arts and sci-
ences,and commerce flourish
at Ghizni.
Musical scale, consisting of six
notes, invented by Guido
Aretino.
Avicenna, a famous Arabian
chemist and physician.
Glaber Rod, historian.
Campanes, of Navarro, astro-
nomer.
Hermannus Contractus, monk
and mathematician.
Ecclesiastical.
993. First canonization of
saints.
996. Pope Gregory V.
997. " John XVI.
999. Pope Sylvester II.
Hungary a fief of the
Romish church.
1003. Pope John XVIII.
1009. Pope Sergius.
1012. " Benedict Vin.
Persecution of the Albi-
genses in Languedoc.
1024. Pope John XIX. He
gained his election by bribe-
ry. He was not of the clergy,
but consul and senator of
Rome.
1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten
years old).
"Peace of God," pub-
lished by the bishops.
France, Germany, &c.
996. Fr. : — R o b e r t 1 1 . .
—(the Wise,) succeeds TTTs
father Hugh.
998. — is excommunicated by
the pope for marrying his
cousm Bertha.
1002. Ger. :— H e n r y 1 1 . ,®
—(duke of Bavaria).
Italy :— Ardoin, margrave
of Ivrea, elected king.
1004. Italy :— Henry invited by
the German party.— Ardoin
loses most of Italy and re-
signs. — Pavia burnt in a
quarrel between the troops
and people.
1015. Germany:— The empe-
ror receives an annual tri-
bute from Poland.
1024. Ger. :-Conrad II.
—(the Salic,) first ol the
Franconian line.
1025. Expedition into Italy.
1029. War with the Poles.
1031. Fr.:-Henry I.@—
1032. Burgundy annexed to
the empire.
— Charleviagne to WiUiani /,]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
83
1000
1018
1028
1031
Eastern Empire.
Basil drives the Bulgarians
from Thessaly.
Bulf^aria again redur:l to a
Grecian province.
—Rom an us HI..^^ —
(Argyrus).
-expels the Saracens from
Syria,
-poisoned by his wife Zoe.
-Michael VV .
England, &c.
994. Scotland : — Constantine
IV. slain by
995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim).
1002, Dreadful massacre of
all the Danes in Eneland—
upon which Sweyn lands a
large armament, and brings
war and all its miseries upon
the country.
1003. Scotland :— Malcolm II.,
an able, renowned prince.
1012. All annual tribute pro-
mised to the Danes.
1013. The Danes, under Sweyn,
become masters of England.
1016.— Edmund 11.,^—
(Ironsides.) iights six battles
with Canute, kin,^ of Den-
mark, Willi whom ne finally
divides the kingdom.
1016. Canute @
the Great, patronizes litera-
ture and tlie church.
1027. Ireland : Brian Boru,
sole monarch.
1031. Canute penetrates into
Scotland— subdues Malcolm.
1032. — performs a pilgrimage
to Rome.
ia34. Scotl'd :— Duncan, king.
103.'). —11 a r o 1 d I
(Ilarefoot,^ cruel and
popular — ruled by
Godwin.
The World, elsewhere.
995. Norway :— Olaf I.
Christianity introduced.
997. Drontheim founded.
Mahmud Sultan ofGhiz-
ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca-
bul, and part of India to his
dominions; patronizes litera-
ture.
998. Spain : — Division of the
Mohammedan kingdom of
Cordova.
1000. Sancho III., (the Great,)
king of Navarre, takes the
title of emperor.
1000. Savoy .-—independent un-
der Bervald, its first count.
Poland : — Boleslas I.,
(the Lion-hearted).
1006. Pestilence in Europe for
three years.
1012. Spain: — Suleiman, ca-
liph.
1014. Denmark :— Harold III.,
king.
1015. Norway .—Olaf IL
1016. Denmark :— Canute XL,
(the Great).
1019. Norway conquered by
Canute.
Venice, Genoa, and Pisa
rise into importance.
1025. Poland :— Miecislas II.
1035. Spain : — Ramiro I., king
of Arragon.
1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile,
in right of his wife succeeds
to Leon ; successful against
the Mohammedans.
1036. Denmark : — Hardica-
nute III.
1037. Norway .-—Magnus I^
(the Good).
84 THE world's PiiOGRESS. [Period V.~{a. D.SOO-1066.)— 266 years.
A.D. PUOGRESS OF SOCIETV, etC.
Fe dust, the Persian Homer.
Franco, mathematician.
George Cedrenus, historian.
Michael Psellus^ a celebrated
Greek philosopher and his-
torian.
English parents prohibited by
law from selling their chil-
dren.
First age of scholastic philoso
phy.
Ecclesiastical.
1038. The Pope, for his scan-
dalous conduct, driven from
Rome, but re-established by
the emperor, Conrad.
1044. — again driven from the
throne," and succeeded by
Sylvester III. After three
months Benedict is restored
by the Counts of Tusculum.
But finding the people wil
not tolerate his crimes, he
sells the papal chair to Gre
gory.
— deposed for simony, by
a council called by Henry
III.
laiG. Pope Clement II.
1048. Damascus II., 23 days,
" Leg IX., the first who
kept a regular army.
1053. — is defeated and taken
prisoner by the Normans.
1054. The papal chair vacant
one year.
Excommunication of the
Patriarch of Constantinople,
and the Greeks.
1055. Pope Victor II.
Hildebrand, the real
head of the church from the
time of Leo IX. The church
im[)roving in piety and dis-
cipline.
1057. Pope Stephen IX.
1058. Nicholas II.
Benedict X., (antipope).
The election of pope
trans/erred to a conclave of
cardinals.
1059. Quarrel between the
popes and the German em-
perors, respecting investi-
tures and nomination to the
Holy See.
10(51. Pope Alexander II.
1062. Berenger, a celebrated
French ecclesiastic.
Alexander forbids the
massacre of the Jews.
1066. Alexander deposes Ha-
rold, and gives England to
William the Conqueror,
duke of Normandy.
France, Germany. &c.
1039. Ger.:-Henry 1 11.^
— defeats the Bohemians
and Hungarians — claims the
right of nominating to the
papal chair.
1046. France :— Dispute be-
tween William the Con-
queror and William of
Arques, for the duchy ol
Normandy.
1053. Germany :— Henry III.
causes his son, Henry, to be
proclaimed king of the Ro-
mans. This title was ap-
plied, for several centuries,
to the king's eldest son.
• Gcr. :-Henry IV.W
— (the Great), aged six years,
under the tutelage of his
mother.
10.58. Roger, duke of Apulia,
becomes a vassal of the
pope.
1060. Fr. :-Philip I.W—
'Charlemagne to William /.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
85
A.D
1038
1011
1042
1012
Eastern Empire.
Earthquakes and famine at
Constantinople.
Michael V . ,^
(Calaphales).
— Zee & Theodora. ^—
— C onstantine X. ,^g —
(Monomarchus).
First invasion of the Seljuk
Turks.
The Russians invade Thrace
with 100,000 men, and are
repeatedly defeated by the
Greeks.
England, &c.
1054
1054
1056
1057
— Theodora,^
the last of Macedonian dy-
nasty.
The Greek church becomes
independent.
— Michael VI.,®
(Stra iotichus).
(Comnenus).
—Con St an tine XI.
— (Ducas).
1039. -Ilardicanute .1^-
Scot'd. :— Macbeth mur-
ders Duncan, and usurps the
throne.
The Saxon line restored
under ^^
1042. Edward®-
(the Confessor). The coun-
try prospers under his mild
sway.
The World, elsewhere.
1051. Rebellion of Earl God-
win and his sons.
William, duke of Nor-
mandy, visits Edward.
1053, The Dane-gelt abolished.
Earl Godwin dies
The Welch and the Irish
several times invade Eng-
land, but are repressed by
Harold, son of Godwin.
1054. Macbeth defeated and
killeil at I^angfanan, by
Siward, earl of Northum-
berland.
1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III.
1066. -Harold II., 1^-
elected king ; killed at the
BATTLE of HASTINGS.
— WILLIAM I ,W —
duke of Normandy, styled
" the Conqueror."
End of the Anglo-
Saxon dynasty.
Edgar Atheling flies to
Scotland.
1012. Denmark : — Magnus,
(the Good,) of Norway, king.
1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Es-
tritson, or Suenon U.
1050. The Pisans and Genoese
take Sardinia and Corsica
from the Saracens.
1055. The Turks reduce Bag-
dad, and overturn the em-
pire of the caliphs.
1059. Sweden: — Ingeldus or
Ingo I., the first Christian
king.
1060. Robert Guiscard, the
Norman, is created by the
pope, duke of Apulia.
1062. 70,000 Europeans are
killed, or made prisoners by
the Turks in Palestine.
1065. Jerusalem taken by thf
Saracens.
1065. Castile and Leon:— Al
phonzoj king.
86
THE world's progress.
PERIOD. Yl.— Tke Middle ^^C5.— (Continued.)-
A.D. Progress OF Society, etc.
1073
1081
1084
1090
1092
Feudal System introduced in
England by the Normans.
Surnames first used among
the English nobility.
Knights errant in Spain.
Ingulphus, historian, secre-
tary to William the Con-
queror.
Marianus Scotus.
Booksellers first heard of.
London Bridge and Westmin-
ster Hall built.
Lanfranc, archbishop of Can-
terbury.
Doomsday Book compiled by
order of William the Con-
queror.
William of Spires, mathema-
tician.
A rigid police established in
England. — The cur/etc.
Norman French taught in all
the schools, and made use of
in all legal proceedings.
Literature patronized m the
East by Melek Shah.
Fortress of Newcastle, and of
Carlisle built.
Ecclesiastical,
Popery at the height
of its power, claiming
supreme dominion, tem-
poral and spiritual, over
all the states of Christen-
dom.
France, Germany, & Spain.
1066. William, Duke of Nor-
mandy, claims the crown of
England, and makes war
upon Harold to obtain it.
1071. Philip engages in a
war with Robert, count of
Holland.
1072. Henry IV. of Germany,
summoned before the pope,
for selling the investiture of
bishops. Treats the man-
date with contempt.
1073. —summoned again by
Gregory VII,
l073.Pope Gregory VII.,
(Hildebrand,) who attempts
to free all the clergy from
the civil jurisdiction. He
quarrels with the emperor.
1074. Simony and celibacy
forbidden.
1075. The pope sends legates
to the various courts of Eu-
rope.
1076. — sends an ambassador to
to depose the pope— is excom municated by Gregory. Goes
barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses
his feet.
1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by
the Empress Matilda.
1076. Spain :— The Cid.
1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti-
emperor. Rudolph dies in
1080. Ger.:— Henry IV. de-
grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes
an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be
elected. The war continues till
1084, when Henry triumphs
over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085.
1084. The order of the Carthu-
sians instituted by Bruno.
1086. Pope Victor HI.
1085. Spain :— Toledo taken
from the Moors, by Don
Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by
Raymond, count of Tou-
1086. Spain:— The battle of
1087. France : — War with
England : Robert, duke of
Normandy, opposes Wil-
liam Rufus,
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
1066-1299. — William the Conqueror to Othman I.
87
Eastern Empire.
Eudocia.'
She marries
Romanus III., ^^
(Diogenes.) He valiantly
but vainly opposes the
Turks — is defeated and
taken prisoner by Alp Ars-
lan, Emir ot Omrah.
Michael VII., @
(Parapinaces),
Andronicus I.f^
-Constantine XII.
Syria and Palestine subdued
by Melek Shah.
— Nicephorus, ^S
(Botoniates).
— Alexius I.^^ (Com-
nenus). The empire in-
vaded by Robert Guiscard,
the Norman, v*rho defeats
Alexiu? at Durazzo.
After the capture of Jerusa-
lem, by the Turks, the Chris-
tian pilgrims are insulted,
robbed and oppressed, which
gives rise to the crusades.
— Great struggle between
Christianity and Mohamme-
danism.
England & Scotland.
1066. -William I.,W
" THE CONQ,UEROR," lirst of
the Norman line.
1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of
the Saxon line, takes refuge
in Scotland. His sister,
Margaret, marries Malcolm
III.
1070. The feudal system in
troduced by the king. All
the offices of the government
placed in the hands of Nor-
mans. The Norman ."
guase introduced.
Malcolm III. of Scotland,
ravages Durham.
1072. Peace between the Nor-
mans and the Scots
The World, elsewhere.
1076. Robert, the king's son,
raises a rebellion in Nor-
mandy.
1087. William invades France,
and is killed at Mantes.
1037. —William 11.,^
(Rufus).
Revolt of the Norman
nobles.
1067. Poland : — Boleslas II.,
— he conquers Russia.
1068. Poland :— Romanus Dio-
genes.
1070. Norway : —Bergen built.
1074. Syria : — Melek Sh.di,
(Emir,) extends his domin-
ions from the Jaxartes to the
Mediterranean.
1076. Denmark :— Harold IV.
Palestine invaded and
subdued by Melek Shah.—
Jerusalem taken.
1077. Hungary:— Ladislas I.
1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi-
shop of Cracow, murdered.
The king excommunicated
and dethroned.
1079. Poland :— Uladislas I.
1083. Italy : — Rome taken
after a siege of two years,
by Henry IV,
1084. BOHEMIA erected mto
a kingdom by the empereor
Henry IV.
1090. Sicily conquered by
Roger the Norman, after a
war of thirty years with iti
masters, the Saracens.
88
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.-
A.D. Progress op Society, etc.
1095
1099
HOC
1118
1120
Ecclesiastical.
France, Germany «fc Spain
1093. Conrad, son of the em-
peror, rebels.
The popes continue to struggle against the empire.
1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k.
— of Navarre and Arragon.
The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countries of
Christendom. i i
I The Council of Clermont.
The FIRST CRUSADE ;— P e t e r the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, sef
out with a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start.
The chieftains of the first crusade were,
I.Godfrey of Bcuillor
or Boulogne.
2. Hugh of Vermandois.
3. R o b e r t of Normandy
4. Robert of Flanders.
5. Stephen of Chartrcs.
6. Ravmond of Toulouse.
7. Bohemond.
8. Tancred.
600,000 warriors, 100,000
cavahy.
Nathan Ben Jechiel^ learned
Jew.
Knights of St. John insti
tuted.
Anna Comnena, daughter of
Alexius I., Eastern emperor,
historian.
William of Poitou^ first trou-
badour.
Abclard^ French scholastic.
Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo-
rian.
The Knights Templars.
Tograi, Hairi, and Abdallah
&'harfaddi7i, Arabian poets.
Scholastic Philosophy attains
its highest pomt by the
writings of Peter Abelard,
Peter, the Lombard, (master
of sentences).
1099. Pope Paschal II.
1118. Pope Gelasius II.
1119. « CalistusH.
1123. First Lateran, or ninth
general council.
1124. Honorius II.
1104. Spain :— Alfonzo I., king
of Navarre and Arragon.
1106. Ger.:— Henry V .^
— maintains the right of in-
1108.Fr.:— Louis VI.,^
— Le Gros. Abbe Sugar,
minister.
1109. Germany :— Henry en-
ters Italy, takes the pope
prisoner, and compels him
to crown him.
1114. Henry V. marries Ma-
tilda, of England.
1118. Spain:— A^fcnao I. cap-
tures Saragossa.
1120. Rivalry between Eng-
land and France com-
mences.
1125. Germany :—Lo thai re
1 1-^^ opposed by Fre-
deric, and Conrad, duke o/
Suabia.
1066-1229— Continued.]
THE WORLD S PllOGRESS.
m
1099
Eastern Empire.
1104
1109
1111
1118
Order, learning, and com
merce revive.
By the courage and lalents of
the Comneni, the empire is
feared or respected by the
nations of Asia and Europe.
Invasion by the crusaders :
great numbers pass through
Constantinople.
Battle of Dorylffium, which
secures the march of the
crusaders through Asia Mi
nor.
Acre taken by the crusaders.
Tripoiis taken by crusaders.
Berytus and Sidon taken by the
crusaders.
— John I., ^^ (Comne-
nus),a noble prince ; reforms
(he manners of his people.
Tyre taken by the crusaders.
England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere.
1093. Scotland —Malcolm III.
invades England, and is
slain near Alnwick Casilc by
Roger de Mowbray.
1094. Scot. .-—Donald Bane,
king.
William again invades
Normandy.
SctM. : — Duncan usurps
the crown.
William quarrels with
Anselm, archbishop of Can-
terbury.
1098. Scotland :— Edgar puts
out Donald's eyes and de-
thrones him.
1100. William II. accidentallv
shot by Sir Walter Tyrel.
—11 e n r y I . ,^^ —
(Reauclerc.) grants the ling
lish a ch.irter, and marries
INIaud, a Saxon, thus uniting
the Norman and Saxon in-
to resets.
1101. Robert, duke of Nor-
mandy, invades England.
HOC). Henry invades Norman
(ly ; takes Robert pri.^oner
at the battle of Tinchebrai.
Scotland .-—Alexander I.
1107. Henry quarrels with An-
selm.
1120. Shipwreck and death of
Prince William and 140 no-
blemen.
1124. Insurrection in Norman-
dy suppressed.
Scotland :— David I. pro-
motes civilization.
1095. Hungary :— Coloman.
109G. Egypt : — Mustali, the
eighth Fatimite caliph. Ho
takes Jerusalem.
1097. Baldwin founds the
principality of Edessa.
1099. Jerusalem taken by the
crusaders, under Godfrey
who is elected king.
1102. Poland r—Boleslas III.
1 105. Denmark : — Nicholas.
HOG. Italy: — Venice, Genoa,
and Pisa greatly enriched
by the crusades.
1109. Norway :—Segurd's ex-
pedition to Palestine.
1117. Persia: — Sanjar subdues
Khorasan and Samarkand.
1119. War between Pisa an«i
Genoa.
1120. Italy: — Rise of the
house of Guelph.
Zengi, governor of Mo-
sul, a great prince.
90
THE world's progress.
[Period VI — The Middle Ages. -
A.D. Progress of Society, etc.
Ecclesiastical.
1137
1140
1150
1558
Aristotle's logic comes into
repute.
Pandects of the Roman law,
(Justinian,) discovered at
Amalfi, and the study of the
civillaw revived.
Qratian collects the canon law.
William of Malmsbury, Eng-
lish historian.
Vacarius teaches civil law at
Oxford.
Otho, bishop of Friesengen,
historian, introduces the pe-
ripatetic philosophy into
Germany,
Benja?nin of Tudela, a Jew,
travels from Spain to India,
by Constantinople, and re-
turns through Egypt.
The magnetic needle known
in Italy.
Suidas, lexicographer.
Bben JSzra, of Toledo, Jewish
historian.
Arnold, of Brescia, condemn-
ed and burnt.
Eiistafhius, coTtnentator on
Homer anr.' Dionysius Per.
Banfi of Venire established.—
Pairs at Lcipsic.
London contains 40,000 inha-
bitants
Poem of the Cid.
Colleges of theology, philoso-
phy and law at Paris.
English commerce confined to
the exportation of wool. — A
woollen manufactory esta-
blished at Worsted, and soon
after at Norwich
1127. —makes war against
Roger, king of Sicily.
1130. Innocent II. and Anacle-
tus, rival popes.
1137. A pretended Messiah in
France.
1138. —another in Persia.
1139. Second Lateran, or tenth
general council.
1143. Pope Celestinll.
1144. " Lucius II.
1145. " Eugenius III.
France, Germany &Spa;.n.
J 112. Spain: — Alfonzo VII.,
king, Leon and Castile.
1134. Spain :— Garcia IV., king
of Navarre.
Ramiro II., king of Arra-
gon.
1135. Lothaire in Italy— cap-
ture of Amalfi,
1137. Fr. :-Louis VII.®
— (le Jteune).
1138. Germany : — H o u s e
of S u a b i a ;
—Conrad I.^^
1139. Portugal becomes a king-
dom.— Henry of Besancon.
king.
1141. "Germany and Italy: —
Dissensions of the G u e 1 Is
and G h i b e 1 i n e s .
1147.The Second Crusade excited by St. Bernard,
and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre-
deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. oi France.
1149. France: — Louis divorces
his queen, Eleanor, who
marries Henry of Anjou. af-
terwards king of England ;
thus Guienne and Poiiou are
lost to France.
1150. Spain : — Sancho V., king
ot Navarre.
1152. Germany and Italy :—
1153. Pope Anastasius IV.
1 15-4. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng
li.shman, Nicholas Breaks-
peare).
1159. Pope Alexander III.
Victor IV., ami pope.
1160. Order of the Carmelites
instituted.
The Waldenses and
Albigenses begin to ap-
pear.
11G4. Pascal III., antipope.
1 167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa.
1163. Calistus III , antipope.
Frederic I.
(Barbarossa).
1157. Spain: — Castile and
Leon divided under Ferdi-
nand II. and Sancho II,
1158. Germany :— The empe-
ror Frederic receives the
title of king of Bohemia at
the diet of llatisbon: — con-
quers Poland, and makes it
tributary.
1162. Frederic destroys Mi.'an.
Spain : — Alfonzc II.,
king of Arragon.
1066-1229.— Continued.]
THE world's progress.
91
Eastern Empire.
1143
1148
England <k Scotland.
1155
1156
-Manuel Commenus. '
Edessa being retaken by the
Turks, gives rise to the
second crusade.
The Normans, under Roger,
arrive before Constantino-
ple ; are repulsed by Manuel.
Kelfo, Melrose, and Iloly-
rood house founded.
1127. Matilda, the king's
daughter, marries Geoffrey
Plaritagenet.
1135. Stephen^—
of Blois.
1136. Matilda asserts her right
to the throne ;
David, king of Scotland,
assists her.
1138. —is defeated in the " bat-
tie of the Standard."
1141. Stephen made prisoner
at the battle of Lincoln.
The World, elsewhere.
1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald I.
1133. " Magnus I.
Civil war: Stephen and
Matilda.
1149. Henry Plantagenet in-
vades England.
1139. PORTUGAL becomes a
kingdom, under Alfonsol.^^
Sweden : — Suercher IL
The Greeks reduce Apulia
and Calabria.
Manuel forms the design of
conquering Italy and the
western empire, but fails.
1154. —Henry II.
(Plantagenet).
1158- Thomcis a i?ecA:e/ intro-
duced to the king's notice by
Theobold, archbishop of
Canterbury— becomes chan-
cellor and preceptor of the
prince.
1159. Becket sent as ambassa-
dor to France.
1162. — made archbishop of
Canterbury — opposes the
king.
1164. —resists the constitutions
of Clarendon — flies to
France.
1166. Scotland :— William.
1147. Russia: — the city o/
Moscow founded.
1150. Denmark :— The coasts
infested with pirates.
1150. Sweden :— Eric X.
1157. Denmark : Waldemar I.
1158. Venice a great maritime
power.
1162. Sweden :— Charles VII.
1167. Italy :— League of the
Italian cities to preserre
their liberties.
92
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
\Pe}iod VI.— Tke Middle Ages.—
D. PROaRESS OF SOCIETY, etC.
Ecclesiastical.
Foundation of the military
order of Santiago.
Circuit Judges appointed in
England.
1178. /nnocenHIL, antipope.
The pnpc Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy
of Heikshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks
during his visitation.
The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They
circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore-
runners of Protestant i<;m. Cou demned by the Eleventh Gene-
ral Council, and severely per sccuted.
117i). Third Lateran, or Ele-
veulh Ge72eral Council.
Robert Wave, first French
poet. Translaiioii of iiis
Hist, des Rois d' Angitterre^
by Layanion, the tirst Eng-
lish composition.
John Tzetesj Greek gramma-
rian.
Maimonides, of Cordova, one
of the most learned of the
Jews.
IIcnrT/, of Ilnntington^ and
William^ of Newbury, his-
torians.
Rainulph de Glanville makes
a digest of laws and customs
of England.
Dreadful massacre of the Jews
at the coronation of Richard
Teutonic order instituted.
Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author
of a Life of Saladin, in Ara-
bic.
The Jews become the princi-
pal bankers of the world.
Order of the Holy Trinity in-
stituted in Germany.
1181. Pope Lucius III.
1185. Pope Urban HI.
1187. Pope Gregory VIH.
1187. " Clement IIL
France, Germany, & Spain.
1170. France:— The Walden-
ses. They derived their
name from Peter Waldo, a
merchant of Lyons.
1174. Frederick's fourth expe-
dition into Italy.
1176. Frederick defeated at the
battle of Leffnano.
1178. Henry, the Lion, duke
of Saxony, deposed, and
Saxony divided.
llSO.Fr.:-PhiIip II.
(Auguste).
1183. The Peace of Constance
re-establishes tne independ-
ence of Italian republics.
1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX.
king of Leon.
1190. Third Crusade led by Philip Augustus, of
France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba-
[191. Pope Celesline IIL
1198. Pope Innocent III.
1190.Ger.:-HcnryVI.^
emperor and king of Italy
and the Sicilies.
1196. Richard Coeur de Lion
seized and retained in cap-
tivity.
1198. Philip, of Suabia, and
Otho, of Saxony, dispute the
crown ; the former sup-
ported by the Ghibelines,
and the latter by the Guelfs.
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE WORLD'S PROGPcESS.
93
Eastern Empire.
-Alexius 11.^
- Andi'onicus I.
(Angelas).
The empire invaded by the
Bulgarians.
Iconium taken by Frederick
Barbarossa, bu', afterwards
restored.
— Alexius Angel US,"
usurper and tyrant.
England 6c Scotland.
1170. Becket returns to Eni_
land, and is murdered at the
altar.
1172. Henry conquers
Ireland.
1174. Treaty of Falaise,
which William agrees to do
homage for Scotland.
Henry makes a pilgri-
mage to the shrine of Becket,
1189.— Richard I .^
(Cceur de I.ion). He en-
gages in the third crusade.
The World, elsewhere.
1171. Egypt :-—Saladin, sul
tan.
— He extends his domi-
nions in Egypt, and con-
quers Syria, Assyria, Meso-
potamia, and Arabia.
1174. Poland :— Miecislaus HI.
1175. Portugal-
Holy See.
-a fief of the
1178. Poland .-—Casimir, (the
Ju.st
1182. Denmark :— Canute.
1183. Saladin takes Aleppo,
and deposes the sultan of
Mosul.
1185. Portugal :—Sancho I.
1186. Saladin directs all his
efforts against the crusaders.
1187. —gains the victory of
Tiberias, and takes Jerusa-
lem, which leads to
1190. The third crusade.
1191. Kingdom of Cyprus
founded,
1191. Acre taken by the cru-
saders.
1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascaion ; but,
abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of hiee
years.
1193. John attempts to seize
the crown in the absence of
Richard.
1193. Saladin dies.
94 THE world's progress. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.—
A.D. Progress of Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany & Spain.
1200
1222
The power of the pope supre me — Rome mistress of the world, and kings her vassals
The University of Bologna
contains 10,000 students.
Ville Ilardouin, historian.
Saxo Grammaticus,histonan.
University of Paris founded.
The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted.
1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France.
1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and
Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They take
Constantinople.
1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce,
The works of Aristotle, im-
ported from Constantinople,
condemned by the council
of Paris.
Period of the Troubadours in
France ; the Minstrels in
England; and the Minne-
singers in Germany.
University of Padua founded.
Stephen Langton, archbishop
of Canterbury.
Bitter persecution of the
Albigenses.
The doctrine of transub-
stantiation and auricular
confession established.
1215. Fourth Lateran, and
twelfth General Council
against the Albigenses, and
all heretics.
1216. Pope Honorius III.
1217. The fifth crusade by
Andrew II., king of Hun-
gary.
1227. Pope Gregory IX.
1229. The Inquisition at Tou-
louse.
The Scriptures forbid-
den to alt laymen.
Normandy reunited to
France.
1210. Germany :— Otho placa.1
under the ban of the pope.
1212. — Frederickll.f
Spain :— The Christiana
gain the battle of Navas de
Tolosa.
1215. Otho loses the battle of
Bovines.
1217. Spain -.—Ferdinand, king
of Castile.
1223. Fr. .-Louis VIII. ^
(The Lion).
Crusade against the Al-
1226. Fr. : L o u 1 s I X . W
(Saint).
1227. Germany :— Crusade of
the emperor after being ex-
communicated.
1230. Spain : — Castile and
Leon united by Ferdinand
III., who takes Cordova., Se-
ville. CaUiz, Ice. from the
Moors.
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE world's progress.
95
Eastern Empire.
England & Scotland.
— Alexius IV. ^
The crusaders plunder Con
stantinople.
Baldwin, count of Flanders.
Henry II. ^
1221
Richard, returning home
in disguise, through Ger-
many, is imprisoned. Is
ransomed by his subjects (or
10,000 marks.
— declares war against
France.
1199. Richard dies.
1200. John, @
(liackland.)
1201. Prince Arthur supported
by France.
The World, elsewhere.
1207. The kingdom laid under
an interdict.
1208. .John excommunicated.
liOndon obtains the right
to elect its own Lord Mayor.
1202. Deimiark : — Waldemar
II.
Poland : — Lesco, (the
white).
Livonia :— Institution of
the order of short swords to
conquer the Prussians.
1206. Genghis Khan
subdues the north of China.
1210. Italy :— First war of Ve-
nice and Genoa.
- Poter
— Robert
1237
— John of Brienne,^^
king of Jerusalem, and em-
peror.
-Baldwin 11.^
1213. The pope declares John
a usurper. John submits to
hold his crown as a vassal of
the pope.
1214. Scotland :— Alexander II.
1215. Magna Charta signed at
Runnymede.
1216. —Henry III.^
(4th Plantagenet.)
Earl of Pembroke, pro-
tector.
1224. Henry's province of
Poitou seized by the king of
France.
1229. First expedition of Henry
into France for the recovery
of his estates.
123.3. First di.s-covpry of coal
at Newc.i^^ilf.
1213. Russia :— Jurje H.
1214. Frederick cedes to Den-
mark all the provinces be-
yond the Elbe and Eiser.
1216. Tartary .—Overrun by
the hordes of Genghis Khan.
1217. Norway : — Haco V.
1222. Two Greek kingdoms in
Asia, Nice and Trebizond.
John Ducas, emperor of
Nice.
Hungary : — Charter of
Andrew II. Foundation of
the national liberty.
12,34. Italy :— War of the Lorn
bard cities with Frederick d
Germany.
1236. Dreadful invasior ( ,'
Europe by the Mongols, i;,
der Batu Khan.
96
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period VI.— Tke Middle Ages-
Progress op Society, etc.
Robert, of Gloucester, the first
English writer in rhyme.
First war fleet in Spain at the
conquest of Seville.
Foundation of the Alhanibra
near Granada.
St. Edmund, of Canterbury,
dies.
The University of Salaman-
ca founded.
Silk manufactory in Lucca;
woollen in Milan and Tus-
cany.
Peter, of Albano, astrologer,
physician, and naturalist.
llubruquis travels among the
Mongols.
Private war and judicial com-
bats suppressed in France
by the laws of St. Louis.
Parliament in England.
The monastic orders, by their
wealth, rigid discipline,
and popular influence, be-
come powerful aids to pon-
tifical ambition.
Ecclesiastical.
124L Pope Celestine IV.
1243. Pope Innocent IV.
Continual Ptrugj^les with
the emperor Frederic.
Sect of the Fla%ellants.
1254. Pope Alexander IV.
The Jews every where
persecuted.
12G1. Pope Urban IV.
The popes claim the
right of presenting t.() every
benefice in the world.
France, Germany «fe Spain.
I23S. Germany : — Frederic
again excommunicated.
1243. The Ilanseatic
1 e a g u e — the chief towns
are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns-
wick, and Dantzic.
1246. llenry of Thuringia set
up for emperor by the pope,
and
1247. William, of Holland.
1248. France : — Louis sets out
on the seventh crusade.
1250. Germany:
Conrad IV .^^ —
1252. Spain : — Alfonso X.
king of Castile and Leon.
12G1. France .-—Burgundy falls
to the crown.
I2fi5. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do-
minion of Italy, and places Charles of Anjou on the throne
of Naples.
1265. Pope Clement IV.
1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator.
1268. Pragmatic sanction-
foundation of the liberties of
the Gallican church.
1268. No pope for about three
years.
1271. Pope Gregory X.
1270. France :— Louis IX. sets
out on the eighth and last
crusade, and dies before
Tunis— succeeded by
— Philip 1 1 1.1^ —
(The Hardy).
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
97
Eastern Empire.
England «fe Scotland. The World, elsewhere,
1260
12G1
—Michael Palaeologus.^^-
— recovers Constantinople,
Tlie Mongols in Asia Minor.
1240. Richard, earl of Corn-
wall, heads the sixth cru-
sade, and redeems Jerusa-
lem.
1242. Second expedition into
France — defeated and com-
pelled to make peace.
1240. Henry marries Eleanor,
of Provence.
1249. Scot. : Alexander l I.
— Repulses Haco, king
Norway — obtains the
1241. Denmark .-—Eric VI.
of Norway —
Scottish Lsles.
1258. Famous parliament at
Oxford. S i m o n d e
M o n 1 1' o r t .
125'J. Peace with France.
146S
The Mongols fake Antioch.
12G5. PiTsf. regitlar parlia-
ment.— Civil war — the king
made prisoner at Lewes — is
released, and gains the bat-
tle of Evesham.
1270. Prince Edward joins the
eiirhth crusade.
1249. The Hanse towns cap-
ture Copenhagen.
1250. Egypt :— f he Mame-
lukes rule— take Damas-
cus and Aleppo.
1255. Nice :— Theodore Lasca-
ris, emperor.
1250, Hulaku enters Persia,
becomes sultan— takes Bag-
dad, and puts an end to
the caliphate.
1258. Italy .-—Dreadful naval
war between Venice and
Genoa.
1259. China :-Kublai Khan
builds Pekin, and makes it
his capital.
1201. Norway :— Iceland sub-
jected.
Italy :— Charles I.
1202. —becomes a papal fief.
Greenland tributary to
Norway.
Norway :
Magnus II.®
1205. Abaka Khan of Persia.
1200. Magnu.s, of Norway,
cedes to Scotland the He
brides anil the Isle of Man.
1270. Hungary :
Stephen V^
98
THE WORLD S PROGRESS,
[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.—
A.D. Progress OP Society, etc.
1272
1273
I
Marco Polo t rave' Is in the
East as far as Pekin.
First patent of nobility grant-
ed to his goldsmith by the
king of France. This was
designed as an attack upon
the feudal barons, and all
the landed and hereditary
aristocracy.
1279
1285
Literature and science flourish
in Spain, under Alfonzo, the
learned.
Chivalry and the tournaments
introduced into Sweden.
University of Lisbon founderl.
Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the
most learned man of the
middle ages.
Institution of (he throe great
courts of law in England.
Ecclesiastical.
France, Germany, &Spaim.
1272. Languedoc falls to the
crown.
1273. Ger. :-RodoIph.®
founds the house o <
H a p s b u r g .
1274. I4th General Council iit Lyons; first re-union o<
the Eastern and Western Churches.
1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos,
" Adrian V., 1 mo.
" John XXI., 8 mos.
1277. Nicholas III., enriching
his family at the expense of
the church— he introduces
Nepotism.
1281. Pope Martin IV.
128;"!. Pope Ilonoriiis IV.
1288. Pope Nicholas IV.
Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, and
improves and embellishes Rome.
Aloeri, the mat hematJcian. and
Proven9al poet.
1276 France at war with Cj
tile.
12.S3. Germany Rode .ph
makes his son, Albert, duke
of Austria.
1285. Fr.:— Philip IV.
(the Fair.)
1286. Spain :— Alfonzo 111
king of Arragon.
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
99
1273
1277
Eastern Empire.
• AndronicaSj *
(the Elder.)
Union with the Latin church.
Persecution of the Greek-3.
Othman establishes an inde-
pendent rule, as chief of
400 families, in the north of
Asia Minor.
England «fe Scotland.
1272. — Edward I . W —
1276. War between England
and Wales.
12S3. Edward has a son born
at Caernarvon, from which
the title, Prince of Wales,
descends to the eldest son of
the king,
Scotland :— Robert Bruce and
John Balliol contend for the
crown.
1289. Last payment of tiibute
to the pope.
The World, elsewhere.
1272 Hungary :-
-Vladislas VI. ^
1276. Sweden : — Magnus
Russia : — Hanseatic set-
tlement at Novogorod.
1279. China :-Kublia Khan
subdues the southern king-
dom, and becomes the Great
Khan.
China visited by Marco
Polo. ^
1279. Poland :— Lesco U.W-^
Portugal :— Dennis,^^
■the father of his coun-
1279.
try.
12.S0. Norway :— Eric IV
12,^2. Sicilian vespers.
1282. Denmark :~Parliament
at Wurtemburg.
First Uandveste.
1286. Denmark :— Eric VLl
1289. The Mongols Invade
Hungary and Poland.
1290. Hungary : —Andrew HI.
the Venetian.
Poland : Wencesla<,
king of Bohemia, takes Cra-
cow, and becomes duke o -
Lesser Poland.
,« <" \ /--!»
100
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VI. — The Middle Ages.—
Progress of Society, etc.
Ecclesiastical.
Peter, of Albano, astrologer,
physician, and naturalist.
John Holy wood, of England
astronomer.
Richard Middleton.
Cimabue, the first of modern
painters at Florence.
Arnolf di Lapo, the father of
modern Italian arcliitecture
1297. Canonization of Louis
IX.
The Inf luence of the
crusades icas g j- eat
expanding the
mind of Eur op e — r e ■
fi ning the g encral
manner s — e xc i ti ng
a spirit of geogra-
phical research and
adventur e — a nd pr o-\
moting i mp rovementl
in the arts an d sci-\
ences — thus under mining instead
tr cngt he n i n
1292. Celestine V.— he abdi-
cates.
1292. The papal chair vacant
two years and three months.
Institution of tlie order
of tlie Celestines.
1294. Pope Boniface VIII.
1296. Struggles with France.
France, Germany «& Spain.
1291. Germany:
— Adolphus,
of Nassau.
Spain :— James II. k. of
Arragon,
First letters of marque grant-
ed by Edward III. against
the Portuguese.
^ the
pow er ofp apaCRome
by advancing libe
r al ideas an d fr e e ■
do 771 of thought.
1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV.
in Castile ai d lieon.
Philip successfully
vades Flanders,
1298. Germany : — Adolphus
deposed by a Diet, whicli
elects
— Albert I.^ —
son of Ilodolph.— Adolphus
slain in the struggle which
ensues.
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
101
1291
1292
1299
Eastern Empire.
Capture of Acre by the Ma-
melukes—end of the king-
dom of Jerusalem.
The Mongols drive the last
sultan of Iconium from his
throne.
The Genoese obtain the trade
of the Black Sea, and rise to
great power.
Othman invades Nicomedia,
and establishes the Ottoman
empire.
England & Scotland.
1291. Edward decides the
Scottish dispute in favor of
Baliol.
1292. A piratical warfare be-
tween England and France.
—Philip gets possession of
Guienne.
The World, elsewhere.
1292. Hungary:— The pope
sets up Charles Martel,
crown prince of Naples, as
king.
1294. China:— Tymui Khan.
1295. Poland:
129G. Ball 1 defeated;
mits to Edward.
1297. Scotland :-S i r Wil-
liam Wallace .— S i r
William Douglas.
Robert Br u c e , and
other chiefs lieail a rebellion
against the English.
1299. —they are defeated at
Falkirk by king Edward I.
— Premjslas 11.^
129G. Poland:— Less 11.^—
1299. Foundation of the
OTTOMAN or TURKISH
EMPIRE in Bythinia, un-
der Othinan I.
102
THE world's progress.
PERIOD Yll.— The Middle ill,' e^-.— 1299 to 1453.—
A.D. Progress of Society, etc.
University at Lyons founded.
— Rapid advances in civili-
zation.— Revival of ancient
learning. — Improvements in
the arts and sciences — and
progress of liberty.
The Mariner's Com-
pass invented at Naples,
by Gioia, native of Amalfi.
University at Avignon.
Bante,\he father of modern
Italian poetry, flourishes.
Amid the struggles of the
Guelfs and Ghibelines,
Italy becomes the cradle of
modern literature and im-
proving civilization.
University at Orleans.
University at Perugia.
University at Coimbra.
Kniirhfs of St. John
Rhodes.
Order of Knights Templar
abolished.— The barons ir
England extort from Ed
ward II. a reformation of
abuses. Parliaments are to
be held every year, and to
appoint to all imjDcnant
offices.
Ecclesiastical.
France, Germany, & Spain.
1302. First convocation of the
States-general in France.
Guienne restored to Eng-
land.
1304. France at war with
Flanders.
Germany : — The Swiss
towns rise into importance
— oppressed by the House of
Hapsburg.
1303. Pope Boniface VIII.
Council of Paris.
Bull unam sanctum.
Pope Benedict XI.
Vacancy in the papal
chair nearly eleven momhs.
— The papal power de-
clines.
1305. Pope Clement V.
Seat of the popes transferred to Avig-
non.
1306. Persecution of the Jews
in France.
Germany - — Rudolf
1311. General Council at Vien-
na.
Another vacancy in the
papal chair of more than
two years.
1316. Pope John XXII.
Taxes imposed upon all
the countries o\' Europe, to
enrich the treasury of the
church.
of Austria-'
the
1307. Persecution of
Knights Templar.
Ger. : — William Tell
shoots Gesler.
1308 Germany : H e n r y
of Luxemburg. ^^ ■
General insurrection in
Switzerland.
1309. Spain : — Ferdinand IV.
takes Gibraltar.
1311. Lyons united to France.
1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XL
of Castile and Leon.
1314. Fr. :-Louis X.§-
(Hutin.)
Ger. : — Louis of Bava-
ria, and Frederick of Aus
tria, contend for the crown.
1315. Fr. .-—Edict for the en
franchisement of slaves.
Battle of Morgarten— i h*;
Austrians defeated by the
Swiss.
1316. Fr. :-Philip V.^__
(the Long.) He succeeds bj
virtue of the Salique law
now first established.
THE world's progress.
154 years. — Othvian to (he Fall of the Eastern Empire.
103
Eastern Empire.
War of the Catalans, under
Roger de Flor.
Othman increases his posses-
sions ; abandons the {)asto-
ral life, and fortifies (owns
and castles.
England & Scotland.
1303. Edward invades Scot-
land. — Wallace betrayed
and beheaded. — Scotland
submits.
Edward recovers Gui
enne.
The World, elsewhere.
1301. Hungary : — Andrew, the
Venetian.'^
Extinction of the house
of Arpad.
— Wenceslas III. of Ho
13(X). Scotland : — R o b e r 1
B r u c e i)roclairned kins
— is obliged to flee ; but
Edwfinl dying, resumes his
posiiion.
1307. En?. .-Edward II. @
Soot. :— Bruce strength-
ens himself by repeated ad-
vantages and prudent con-
duct.
1310
The KnighLs o\ St. John of
Jerusalem, established at
Rh Ddes.
1304. ■
-Otto v.. of Hav,
1305. I'olaj il :— Vladisla.-^ IV.,
in Little Poland, and
Duke Henry, of Glogau.
in Great Poland.
llussia subject to (he
Khan of Tartary.
1307. Switzerland:
W m . Tell escapes from
Gesler:
SWISS Republics
founiled, Nov. 7.
1308. Hungary :— Carobert, o(
1314. Edward invades Scot-
land, and is defeated at the
Battle of Bannock-
burn.
The Scots invade Eng-
land and Ireland.
Anjou.^^^
1300. Poland united into one
monarchy under Vladislas
IV.
Naples : — Robert, the
Good. He aspires to the
dominion of Italy.
1310. Italy :— The Council of
Ten established at Venice.
1313. Italy ;—Matteo Visconti.
1314. Tunis made tributary to
Spain.
1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord
of Lucca and Pisa.
1317. Robert, the Good, a sena-
tor of Rome, and
13 IS. —lord of Genoa.
1319. Final establishmeri ol
the oligarchy at Venica
104
THE world's progress. [Period VII.— Tfie Middle Ageb-
A.D. PRoaREss OF Society, etc.
Dante, dies.
John de Maris introduces
notes of different length into
music — and the method of
distinguishing them.
Romance poetry of the middle
ages flourishes.'
Mayronis commences the cele-
brated disputations in the
Sorbonne.
Clock constructed on mathe-
matical principles, by Rich-
ard Valigfort.
Linna, a monk, and astrono-
mer of Oxford, constructs a
map of the northern seas.
Thomas,of Bradwardine, arch-
bishop of Canterbury.
Giotto, a shepherd boy, the
first who drew portraits
from life.
Greek literature revives. —
Barlaa/n teaches Petrarch.
— Leontius lectures on Ho-
mer at Florence.
First comet, whose course has
been accurately described.
GUNPOWDER in use at
the battle of Cressy.
Lippo Memmi Giot'ino, Flo-
rentine painter.
First bank at Genoa.
Democracy at Rome, under
bunes.
Manufactures improve in
England. — Co>nnierce in-
creases.
Bartolus and Baldus, cele-
brated jurists
Merino sheep introduced into
Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara-
gon.
Sir John Mandeville's Tra-
vels, the first English book
in prose.
Ecclesiastical.
1324. Contest of the popes
with Louis of Bavaria.
1328. Crusade preached agains;
Louis, who sets up Nicholas
V. as anti-pope.
1334. Pope Benedict XH.
1339. Struggles in Rome be-
tween the Colonna and the
Ursini.
1312. Pope Clement VI.
Rienzi, the last of the Tri-
1352. Pope Innocent VI.
1354. Rienzi killed. — Albenioz,
cardinal legate, restores the
papal dominion.
France, Germany, «fc Spain,
132:3. France : — Charles
I V.^— (the Fair.)
Germany :— Frederic, of
Austria defeated and taken
prisoner.
1321. Germany : — Louis ex-
communicated by John XII.
— appeals to a general coun-
cil.
1328. France :-P h i 1 i p VI
of V a 1 o i s . ^^ —
1332. France :— The Flemings
revolt and acknowledge Ed-
ward III. as king of France.
1333. France :- War with Ens-
land.
Germany :— Declaration
of the Diet of Frankfort,
that the pope had no tempo-
ral power in the empire.
l/niis sides with the
English against France.
K316. France: — Normandy
overrun by Edward, with
his son, the Black Prince. —
French defeated at Cressy.
Germany : — C h a r 1 e s
IV., king of Bohemia.
The empire offered to
Edward III., who declines.
1350. France :~.T o h n ,^^ —
(the Good.)
1.355. Germany : — Promulga-
tion of the golden Bull.
13.50. France :— King .John de-
feated and taken prisoner at
p-;iiiers. — Charles the dau-
phin regent.
Insurrection in Paris.
1360. France :— John regain.i
his liberty— cedes much ter-
ritory to England.
1299-1453—154 years. —Contmned.] THE world's progress.
105
1320
1326
1328
Eastern Empire.
Disputes and civil war be-
/ tween the emperor and his
son, Michael.
England & Scotland.
Orkhan, sultan ol the Turks,
makes Prusa his capital.
Andronicus, ^^
(the younger.)
1322. Lancaster executed.
1323. Conspiracy against the
The World, elsewhere.
1320. Russia : — The grand
duchy of Wladimir confer-
red on Ivan Danilovitsch.
1348
1360
— John Cantacuzene. ^
War with the Genoese, tlefeat
of the Greeks and Venetians.
-John PalsBOJogus.*
Amurath I., Sultan of the
Turks.
1327. Peace between Scotland
and England. — The inde-
pendence of Scotland ac-
knowledged.
—Edward lll.^_
1329. Scotland :— David 11.
1332. Edward invades Scot-
land.— Balliol crowned, but
•soon expelled.
13.33. Battle of Halidon Hill.
— Balliol restored— does ho-
mage to Edward,
1326. Tartary : — T a m e r -
lane born at Kesh.
1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis,
emperor of Germany.
1333. Poland : — Casimir the
Great. W
1338. Struggle for the French
crown,which lasts 120 years. 1339. Italy:— Simon Bocane-
gra, doge of Genoa.
1340. The victory of Helvoet
Sluys — gives spirit to the
English navy.
David, of Scotland, in
vades England.
1346. Battle of Cressy.
1347. Siege and capture of
Calais.
1350. Victory over the Spanish
fleet. — Parliament divided
into two chambers, lords
spiritual and temporal.
1356. Edward, the
Black Prince,
gains the battle of
Poitiers.— John made
prisoner.— Two years' truce.
— Edward agam invades
Scotland— is obliged to re-
treat.
1358. — again invades France.
1360. Peace of Bretigni.
1340. Denmark : — Waldemar
IV. restorer of the kingdom.
1342. Hungary : — Louis the
Great.
1343. Italy : Commercial
treaty between Venice and
the sultan of Egypt and
Syria.
1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the
last of the Tribunes, rules
at Rome.
1350. Italy :— Naval war be-
tween Venice and Genoa.
1353. Establishment of the Ot-
tomans in Europe.
1354. Italy :—Rienzi killed—
papal flower restored.
1356. First war between Hun-
gary and Venice.
1359. Hungary :— Conquest of
the principalities lying on
the Danube.
106
THE world's progress.
[Period VII.— Tfie Middle Ages, -
A.D. Progress of Society, etc.
1364
ijyo
1392
1402
Petrarch and Boccacio.
Charles V. founds a college of
medicine and astrology at
Paris.
Foundation of the University
of Vienna.
Geof. Chaucer, father
of English poetry.
Mysteries played in France.
Wickliffe^s translation of the
Bible.
Unir>ersity of Heidelberg
founded.
ProissarVs Chronicles.
John Van Eyck, invented oil
painting — founder of the
Flemish school.
The first mill in Germany for
the manufacture of linen
paper.
Chaucer's Astrolabe written.
Revival of Greek literature in
Italy.
John Gower, English poet.
Ecclesiastical.
1362. Pope Urban V. at Avi^
non— beautifies the city of
Rome — presents the right
arm of Thomas Aquinas to
Charles V. of France, as an
object of worship.
1370. Pope Gregory IX.
1378. " Schism of the West ;"
Pope Urban VI. ac-
knowledged in the empire
and England.
Clement VII. acknow-
ledged in France, Spain, and
Scotland.
1389. Pope Boniface IX. at
Rome.
1391. The English clergy for-
bidden to cross the sea for
benefices.
139^4. Pope Benedict XIII.
France, Germany & Spain.
1364. Fr. :-Charles V.
(the Wise.)
1365. War with Navarre- bat-
tle of Amoy.
1378. Germany :— W e n c e s -
las, (king of Bohemia),
emperor.
1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^
(the Maniac).
1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the
Flemings defeated — Arte-
velde killed.
386. France :— Fruitless at-
tempt to invade England.
1392. —Charles seized with
madness.
1391. Germany :— The emper-
or imprisoned by the people
of Prague.
1400. Ger. :— R o b e r t ,
(Count Palatine).
1299-1458.-151 years.—Conthmed.] THE world's progress.
107
Eastern Empire.
1373
1389
1391
1402
Treaty with Murad, the Otto-
man emperor.
Bajazet 1., sultan of the Tuiks
Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis-
mond, of Hungary, defeated
by Bajazet I.
Bajazet defeated and made
prisoner by Tamerlane, at
the battle of Angora.
England & Scotland.
The World, elsewhere.
13G2. The Black Prince aids
Peter the Cruel, of Castile,
to recover his throne.
13G9. A new war with France ;
unsuccessful.
1371. Scotland :— Robert II.—
the House of Stuart.
1376. Death of the Black
Prince.
1377.-Richard II. ^—
First Speaker of the House
of Commons.
1378. Fruitless invasion of
France.
Insurrection of Wat Ty-
ler.
1382, The king marries Anne,
daughter of Charles IV.
13S4. TM ^f"f>ts? assisted by
FraiYce, invade England.
1385. The English burn Edin-
burgh.
1338. Ilaulo of Ottcrbourne.
1390. Scotland : Robert 111.
Persecution of the Wick-
lifites.
1308. Henry, of Lancaster,
banislied.
House of Lancas-
1399. -Henry IV.® —
Richard II. deposed.
1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen-
dower, and
1403. of the Percys, who are
defeated at the battle of
Shrewsbury.
1352. Italv : — War between
Pisa and Florence.
13G9. Tartary : — Tamerlane
makes Samarcand the capi-
tal of his new empire,
1370. Poland :— Extinction of
the royal race of Piasts.
1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me-
dici, gonfaloniere of Flo-
rence.
1380. Russia:— Dimitri Ivano-
vitsch victorious over the
Tartars, near the Don.
1382. The Tartai's sack Mos-
cow.
1381. Persia : — Invaded by
Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken.
— Pyramids of human heads.
1385. War between Austria
and Switzerland.
1386. Battle of Sempach :—
the Austrians defeated.
1387. Denmark & Norway :—
Margaret, ^^ the Semi-
ramis of the north.
1391, Italy:— Pisa falls under
the yoke of the Visconti.
1395, Tamerlane overruns
Kipchak and Russia,
1397, Union of Calmar, form-
ing Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway into a single mo-
narchy.
1399. Invasion of India by
Tamerlane.
108
THE world's progress. [Poiod VJI.— T/ie Middle Agcs.-
A.D. Progress OF Society, etc.
Ecclesiastical.
Rodn'go, of Za?no7'a, Spanish
historian.
University of Leipsic found
ed.
Thomas a Kejnpis.
John Huss.
Jerome, of Prague.
First Portuguese colomes on
the coast of Africa, Madei-
ra, «fec.
George of Peurbach, astrono-
mer at Vienna.
Peter iVAilly, theologian.
The arts promoted in Italy by
Cosmo de Medici.
England increases her trade
with the Mediterranean.
Michael Walhgemuth, Ger-
man painter, (teacher of
Durer).
Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter.
I^VE^^TION OF PRINT-
IN(i at Mayence.
John Midler licgio??7onfafius,
German astronomer and
mathematician.
1404. Pope Innocent VII.
1406. " Gregory XII.
1409. The council of Pisa de-
poses Gregory and Bene-
dict, and elects Alexander
V. ; — neither will yield, so
that there are three popes at
once.
1410. Pope John XXIII.
France, Germany, <fr Spain
1414. Council of Constance.
1416. John Huss, and Jerome,
of Prague, burnt by the
Council of Constance.
1417. Pope Martin V.
1429. Pope Clement VIII. at
Avignon, resigns, and ends
the "Schism of the West."
1431. Pope Eugenius IV.
Council of Basle.
1407. France : — Murder of
Louis, Duke of Orleans.
Spain:— John II., king
of Castile.
1410. Spain :— Ferdinand, king
of Arragon. ~ Yustcf III.,
king of Granada.
1410. Fr, :— Civil war between
the parties of Orleans and
Burgundy.
Germany : — Death of
Robert.
Ull. S i g i s m u n d , (king
of Hungary),
-empe-
-The French
1413. France:
defeated by Henry V., of
England, at Agincourt.
1410. Spain:— Alfonzo v., king
of Arragon and Sicily.
1419. Sigismund succeeds to
the Bohemian crown.
1422. France :— Death of Char-
les VI —Henry VI. pro-
claimed at Paris king of
France and England.
— C h a r I e s VII. ^ —
at Poitiers.
1427. Orleans besieged by the
English.
1 129. — saved by J o a n of
Arc.
Charles crowned at
Rheims ; makes a vain at-
tempt to gain Paris.
1431. Joan of Arc taken pri-
soner and burnt as a witch.
1431. Germany: — Sigismuml
visits Italy, and is crowned
emperor by Pope Eugenius
IV.
143.5. Peace of Arras, between
France and Burgundy.
1430. France :— Recovery of
Paris.
1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, establishes the liber
ties of the French church.
1209-1458 :— 154 ygar.s.— Continued.] THE world's progress.
109
Eastern Empire.
Solyman I., Sultan of the
Turks.
Mohammed I., Sultan of the
Turks.
England 6c Scotland.
1406. Scotland :— James I
The World, elsewhere.
1406, Italy : — Pisa conquered
by Florence. — Subjugation
of Padua and Verona by
Venice.
Amurath II., Sultan of the
Turks.
John VII, ^
peror.
The emperor visits Italy to
obtain help against the
Turks — submits to the pope.
1413. —Henry V .^ —
1414. — claims the French
crown.
1415. — gains the battle
of A g i n c o ti r t .
1420. Treaty of Troyes.-IIenry
marries Catharine, daughter
of Charles VI., and is de-
clared heir to the French
crown.
1422. Death of Henry V.
-Henry V I .^-
1424. The Duke of Bedford
defeats the French at Ver-
neuil.
1427. —besieges Orleans.
1429. The siege raised by the
Maid of Orleans.
14.31. — she is taken prisoner
and burnt.
1435. Death of the Duke of
Bedford, followed by the
loss of all tlie English pos-
sessi(»ns in France, except
Caliij.^.
1436. War with Scotland.
1437. Scotland :— James II.
1412. Italy:— Sack of Rome
by Ladislas, king of Naples.
Denmark, Norway, <kc. :
Eric VII., of Pomerania.^^
1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by
the Portuguese.
1419. Bohemia :— Hussite war.
1420. Discovery of Madeira
by the Portuguese.
1424. Bohemia :-Death of John
Ziska, the Hussite leader.
Italy :— War of the Duke
of Milan against Florence.
^29. Florence:— Cosmo di
Medici, patron of the
arts and sciences.
1431. Italy :— Second war of
Venice and Milan.
li;34. Poland : -Vladislas III.
1136. Iialy :~Third war be-
tween Venice and Milan.
1437. Portugal : — Expedition
into Africa.
1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V.,
king.^
110
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period VII.— The Middle Ages. -^
1446
1460
Progress of Society, etc.
Leonardo da Vinci ^ sculptor,
architect, and painter— dis-
covers perspective.
Pet. Perugino, founder of the
Roman school of painting.,
teacher of Raphael.
Library of the Vatican, found-
ed.
The Azores discovered.
Alain Chartica. French poet.
Flourishing period of Flan-
ders' trade.— Ml European
nations have warehouses at
Bruges and Ghent.— fiooAr
trade at Ma^ence.
Ecclesiastical.
1447. Pope Nicholas V,
1448. Concordat of Aschaffen-
berg, by which the liberties
of the German church are
compromised.
France, Germany & Spain.
1438. Germany : — House
of Austria:
— Albert II. W —
(king of Bohemia and Hun-
gary.)
1440. Ger. :-F r e d e r i c
France :— The dauphin,
(Louis XL), rebels — but is
pardoned.
1444. — establishment of the
companies of Archers, the
"first national standing armj.
1446. Germany :— War with
Hungary, for refusing to
give up the young prince.
Vladislas.
1451. Expedition of Frederic
to Rome.
1453. Austria made an heredi-
tary duchy bv Frederic.
End of the French and
English wars.
1299-1453.— 154 yg^rs.— Continued.] THE world's progress. Ill
1443
1448
1451
Eastern Empire.
Insurrection of Scandeberg—
victory over the Turks near
Nissa.
Battle of Varna — Vladislas,
king of Poland, defeated and
killed by the Turks.
— Constantino XTI. ^^
(Palaeologus,) the last of the
Greek emperors.
Mohammed II., Sultan of the
Turks.
1453 Siege and capture
of Constantinople
by the Turks:
END OF THE EAST
ERN EMPIRE.
England «fc Scotland. The World, elsewhere,
1444. Truce with France.—
Marriage of Henry to Mar-
garet, of Anjou.
1447. Gloucester arrested for
treason— dies suddenly.
1460. Insurrection of Jack
CatZe— calling himself Mor
timer.
Civil Wars of
< ' t h e Roses:''
Richard, duke of York,
claims the throne.
Scotland :— Struggles be-
tween the king and aristo-
cracy for power.
1440. Hungary : — Vladislas
chosen king.f^
1441. Italy :— Peace of Marti-
nego.
1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon,
unites the crown of the Two
Sicilies.
1445. Poland : Casimir IV. ^
144G. Tartary : — Ulugh Beg.
patron of astronomy and
geography.
1448. Denmark :— Christian I.
of Odenburg.^f
Sweden :— Charles VIH.^
1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor-
za, duke of Milan.
Norway : Christian
crowned at Drontheim.^f
Delhi :— Behol Lodi en-
larges Ihe kingdom.
1453. Poland : —Confirmation
of the national liberty in the
Diet of Petrikan.
112
THE world's progress.
PERIOD VIIL— 1453-1598.-
1460
UH
Progress op Society, etc.
Philip de Comines, French
historian.
Wood engraving invented.
Post- Offices in France and
England.
146G Faust dies at Paris, whither
he journeys twice to sell his
Latin Bible.
1470 Beerhard invents the pedal to
the organ.
1471
1477
Printing in England^Cax-
ton.
Printed musical notes.
Hungary : — Mathias patroni-
zes literature and the arts.
Large library at Ofen— 300
copyists of manuscripts.
German ballads— war songs of
Veit Weber.
Watches first made at Nurem
burg.
Mikrolid and Rondemir, great
Persian historians.
Lady Juliana Berners, one of
the earliest female writers
of England.
Hans Holbein, painter.
Franchino Gafurid, teacher in
the first public school of
tnus'ic at Milan.
Josquin de Prez, greatest mu-
sical genius of his age.
England.
1455. Battle oi
St. Albans.
House
of York:
1461. — Ed-
ward IV.
gams
the battle of
Towton.
1469.Warwick
banished.
1471. Battle of
Barnet :
Warwick
slain —Hen-
ry VI. dies in
the Tower
14a3. Ed
ward V .
Richard,
Protector. —
The king &
his brother
murdered in
the Tower.
— R i c h -
a r d III.
1485. -Henry,
earl of Rich-
mond, lands
at Mil ford
Haven.
Battle
o f B o s -
worth
Field:
Richard
defeated and
elain.
Scotland.
1460. James
III.
1479. War with
England . —
Conspiracy
of the no-
bles ; — they
take the king
prisoner.
France.
Spain and
Portugal.
1454. Spain: —
Henry IV. of
1461. Louis
Civil war. —
— Peace of
Conflans
1475, War be-
tween Louis
and Charles
of Burgun-
dy,
1476, — who is
defeated at
Gransonand
Morat, and
1477, —slain at
Nancy. -
Artois and
Burgundy
united to the
French
crown.
1483.-Char-
les VIII.
1469. Marriage
ofFerdinand,
of Arragon,
with Isabel-
la, of Cas-
tile.
1479. Union
of Castile
and Arra-
gon under
Ferdinand
1 1 . and Isa-
bella.
1480. T h e I n -
qu isi tion.
— X i m e -
n e s , bishop
of Toledo.
1481. Port. :—
John IL§
1484. First au-
da-fe at Se-
ville.
THE world's progress.
Othman to the Edict of Nantes.
113
The emperor besieged in his
court at Vienna — delivered
by G. Podiebrad, of Bolie-
mia.
Invasions of the Turks.
University oi Ingoldstodt.
Marriage of Maximilian and
Maria of Burgundy.
Ottoman
Empire,
1455. Turks re-
pulsed at Bel-
grade.
U:A. Struggle
between Cos-
moil da Me-
dici and the
aristocracy.
1458. The
French rule
in Genoa.
Pope Pi-
us II.
1463. War of
Venice with the Turks.
1464. Pietrode
Medici at
Florence.
Pope Paul
II.
1406. Galeaz-
zo, duke of
Milan.
1469. Loren-
zo d e Me-
dici, suc-
ceeds Pietro.
1471. Sixtus
IV. pope.
Power of
the Medici
increases.
Learning
flourishes.
1464. War with
Hungary.
The World, elsewhere.
1478. Conspi-
racy of the
Pazzi at Flo
rence.— Giu-
lio, brother
of liOrenzo
de Medici,
slain.
1484. Innocent
VIII., pope.
1479. Fruitless
attempt upon
Rhodes.
1480. -capture
and destroy
Otranto.
1481. Bajazet
n. #
the tirst un-
warlike sul-
tan.
1454. Poland :— War with the
Teutonic Order.
1458. Hungary : Mathias
Corvin,^^ ;nakes his
country lormidable to her
neighbors.
1462. Russia:— Ivan I.^^ —
the Great — takes the title of
Czar.
1466. Peace of Thorn.— East
Prussia a fief of Poland.—
West Prussia ceded to Po
land.
1468. Uzun Hasan, master of
all Persia.
1470. — forms an alliance with
the Venetians and the duke
dy against the Turks— con-
quers Hasfdad.
1472. Russia : — Ivan marries
Sophia, niece of the Greek
emperor.
1474. —shakes o/T the Tartar
yoke, and captures Novo-
gorod.
-War with
1477. Hungary-
Frederic III.'
1481. Denmark :— John, ^g~
partially acknowledgea in
Sweden.
1488. Hungary : — -- Mathiaf
takes Vienna.
114
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VIII.-^
Progress op Society, etc.
Martini Behaim, (Nurem-
burg,) publishes a map of
the world.
DISCOVERY or
AMERICA.
First printing press at Copen-
iiagen.
The second voyage of Colum-
bus.—X Spanish colony at
Hispaniola.
The discoveries of John and
Sebastian Cabot.
Third voyage of Columbus.
He discovers Trinidad and
the Continent.
Lisbon, the great seat of trade.
— Venice declines.
Maritime enterprises greatly
extended.
Sir Tho7nas More's Utopia,
published.
Nicholas Machiavelli, states-
man and historian.
Amerigo Vespucius's voyage.
Fourth voyage of Columbus.
RaphaeU Michael Angelo, Ti-
tian, Corregio, painters.
St. Peter'' s, and other magni-
ficent churches built.
The celebrated tapestry., after
Raphael ;— Cartoons woven
in the Netherlands.
L TITHE R, Erasmus,
MelancthoB , and other
reformers.
Roger Aschain, tutor of queen
Elizabeth.
Hans Sachs, founder of Ger-
man drama.
Copernicus, discovers
the true system of the Uni-
verse— his great work, De
Orbium Coelesuum Revolu-
tionibus.
First complete circumnavi-
gation of the globe, by Ma-
gellan
England.
Scot-
land.
France.
House of
Tudor:—
-H e n r V V 1 1 .
#-
1486. Imposture of
Lambert Symnel.
1487. : —
The Star Cham-
James
ber established.
IV.
1491. Bretag-
ne united to
the crown
by the king's
marriage
1493. Perkin War-
with Anne.
beck, pretends to
be Richard, duke
1494. Invasion
of York— defeated
of Italy.
on Blackheath.
1497. Cabot makes
1498.— Louis
discoveries in A-
XII. W-
merica.
1499. Earl of
1499. .- m-
Warwick, last
vades Italy
of the Plantage-
—conquers
nets, executed.
the Milanese
Duchy.
1500. Treaty
with Ferdi-
nand, of Ara-
gon, for the
conquest and
partition of
Naples.
1503.:-
James
marries
1509. H e n r y
Marga-
VIII.®
ret, of
Eng-
1510. The
land.
Council of
joins the League
Tours, to
of Cambray.
support the
1513. Invasion of the
king against
Scots. — Battle of
the Holy
Flodden— the king
League.
and chief Scots
killed.
1513. : -
1515. W 0 I s e y ,
James
1515.— Fran -
chancellor and car-
V.
«4k
dinal.
cisI.W—
1520. The Emperor
—invades
visits England. —
Italy— victory
Meeting of Henry
of Marigna-
and Francis at the
no — Genoa
"Field of the Cloth
and Milan
of Gold."
submit.
1521. The Reformed
1516. Concor-
doctrines opposed
dat with the
by Henry, in his
pope, instead
book on the Seven
of pragma-
Sacraments — he
tic sanction.
receives the title
1521. First war
of " Defender of
with Char-
the Faith."
les V.
1453-1598.]
THE world's progress.
115
i49;j
502
1512
1517
1518
1519
1521
—M a X i m i 1 i a n
University of Wittenburg.
Maximilian enters Italy to be
crowned by the pope.
—joins the League of Cam-
bray.
— divides the empire into ten
circles.
Commencement of
THE Reformation.
Luther summoned before the
diet of Augsburg,
— Charles V. ^^ —
of Spain.
The archduke Ferdinand, mar-
ries Anne, sister of Louis—
whence the accession of
Bohemia and Hungary to
the House of Hapsburg.
Diet of Worms.
1492. Pietro II.
succeeds his
father, Lo-
renzo, in Flo-
rence.
Pope Alex-
ander VI.,
(Borgia.)
1494. Expedi-
tion of Char-
les VIII.
to Italy.
1499. Amerigo
Vespucius's
voyage
America.
15(XJ. Partition
of Naples
between
France and
Spain.
1502. Florence:
Machiuveili,
Secretary of
State.
1503. Naples
annexed to
the Spanish
Crown.
Pope Pius
HI.
Pope Ju-
lius II.
1508. League
of Cambray
against Ve-
nice.
1510. Holy
League to
expel the
French.
loll. Council
of Pisa.
1513. Pope
Leo X.
(de Medici,)
patron of li-
terature and
arts.
The build-
ing of St.
Peter's com-
menced.
1519. Cardinal
de Medici
holds rule in
Florence.
1522. Po.pe
Adrian VI.
Ottoman
Empire.
The W^orld, elsewhere.
1493. Wars
with Egypt.
Hungary,
and Venice.
1503. Peace
with Venice.
1505. War with
Persia.
1512. Selim I.,
A de-
thrones and
Euts to death
is father.
1514. The Per-
sians defeat-
ed at Kalde-
roon. — Me-
sopotamia
and Kurdis-
tan added to
the empire.
1516. Cairo
taken by
storm.— Ma-
meluke do-
minions an-
nexed to the
empire.
1520. Soliman,
W (the
Magnificent.)
1521. Belgrade
taken by
stdrm.
1522. Rhodes
capitulates.
1488. India :— Sekander Lodi,
king of Delhi.
1492. Poland:— John Albert.
AMERICA discovered by Co-
lumbus.
1493. Spanish colony at His
paniola.
1499, Voyage of Amerigo Ves-
pucius.-— South American
coast explored.
1501. Poland :— Alexander.*
1 502. Ismail Shah Soofi makes
himself sole sovereign of
Persia.
1506. Poland :— Sigismund I.
M (the Great.)
1509. Bohemia :— Louis,^—
3 years old.
1510. America : — Settlement
at Darien.
151 1. America :— C u b a con-
quered.
1512. America : — Florida
discovered.
1513. South Sea first reached
by Balboa,
1516. Hungary and Bohemia :
-Louis II. @
1517. India :— Ibrahim Lodi,
king of Delhi
1517. America:— Firs; pa/en/
for importing Negroes—
granted by Spain.
1518. Corsairs in Algiers.
1519. MEXICO conquered by
the Spaniards, under Cor-
tes.
116
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VIII.-^
1530
1533
Progress op Society, etc.
Xavier plants Chriatianity in
India.
Artosto, Italian poet.
Scot-
land.
Albert Barer.
F.ist work on military archi-
Jorgens invents the spinning
wheel for spinning flax.
Rabelais, French humorist,
Botanic Gardens at Padua.
1536 Ignatius Loyola founds the
order of the Jesuits.
1537
1538
1539
1542
1547
1548
Papal bull declaring the Ame-
rican natives to be rational
beinsrs.
The diving bell invented.
Calvin founds the Univer-
sity of Geneva.
Pins first used by Catharine
Howard, queen of England,
John Knox, Scottish Refor-
mer.
A commercial treaty between
Portugal and Japan.
Needles first made.
Vasaiius's work on Anatomy.
Revival of Stoicism, by Justus
Lipsius,
Palestrina, founder o( Italian
church music.
Giacomo Carisimi.
Orange trees introduced into
Europe.
15-29. Sir Thomas
More, Lord Chan-
cellor. — Rise of
Cranmer, archbi-
shop of Canter-
bury.
1532. The king mar-
ries Anne Boleyn.
15.35. Bi?hop Fisher
and Sir Thomas
More beheaded.
Henry excom-
municated by the
Pope
1536. —marries Jane
Seymour. — Sup-
pression of the
smaller monaste
1543. Henry invades
France takes
Boulogne.
1544. French fleet
gain a victory over
the English, off
the Isle of Wight.
1547. — Edward
VI.®
Somerset invades
Scotland —defeats
the Scots at Pin-
kie.
Formal esta-
blishment of Pro-
testantism.
1536. : —
Spread
of the
Refor-
mation.
—Pro-
testants
persecu-
ted. «
1542.: —
Mary.
Earl of
Arran,
regent.
Spain and
Portugal.
1525. Francis
defeated and
taken pri-
soner at Pa-
via,
1527. Second
war with
Charles V.
1529. Treaty of
Cambray. —
Great en
couragement
given to arts
and sciences,
—The Lou-
vre com-
menced.
1532. Calvin
preaches.
Third
French war.
— Siege of
Marseilles.
15.38. Truce of
Nice — lor 10
years.
Attempt to
recover pow-
er in Italy;
hence the
1542. Fourth
French war.
1514. Peace of
Crespy.
France gives
up Italy.
1547. Henry
II.
The fa-
mous Cat ha-
r i ne de
Medici,
queen.
1536. Acquisi-
tion of Mi-
lan.
1540. Portu-
gal : — Lis-
bon,the mar-
ket of the
world.
1542. Com-
mercial trea-
ty between
Portugal and
Japan.
1453-1598.J
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
117
Germany.
Ottoman „
Italy. Empire. The World, elsewhere.
General insurrections of the
peasantry, under Thomas
Miinzer.
Charles marries Isabella, of
Portugal.
Death of Frederic, of Saxony
The Turks invade Germany
—Diet of Spires.— Luther-
ans first called Protestants.
League of Smulcald.
1538
1M3
1545
1546
1547
1523. Clement
VII, , pope.
1525. Spain ac-
quires the
ascendency
by the victo-
ry of Pavia.
1527. The Me-
dici expelled
from Flo-
rence.
1530. Me<lici
restored. —
Charles V.
crowned at
Bologna.
Congress of Nice between the
Emperor, the Pope, and the
king of France.
War m alliance with England
against France.
Diet of Worms.
War of the Smalcaldists.
Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo-
ny.
15:^1. Paul III.
pope.
1537, Cosmo
de Medici,
duke of Tus-
cany.
1540. Investi-
ture of Mi-
lan confer-
red by Char-
les V. on
Philip.
1545. Council
of Trent.
1526. Invasion
of Hungary.
1529. Invasion
of Germany.
— Siege of
Vienna.
The Otto-
man navy
formidable
under the
command of
Barbarossa :
1523. Sweden: — Revolt under
Gustavus Vasa . — The
Danes expelled. — Union of
Calmar dissolved.
Denmark and Norway :
—Frederic I.^g
1525. Albert, duke of Prussia.
1535, — who
seizes Tu-
nis. — The
emperor,
Charles V.,
restores the
Moorish
king.
1541. Destruc-
tion of an ar-
mament, led
by Charles
V. against
Algiers.
1547, The
Turks in-
vade Persia,
and capture
Ispahan,
1530. Malta give*: to the
knights of Rhodes
1532. Union of Norway and
Denmark.
1533. Conquest of Pe-
r u , by Cortes.
Russia:— Ivan IV,, (the
Terrible),
1536. Cortes discovers Califor-
nia.
154.3. First standing army in
Sweden.
1545, South America: — Mmes
of Potosi discovered.
1548, Poland :-Sigismund 11
^ (Augustus).
118
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VIII.^
A.D. Progress of Society, etc. England. land! France. PoRTUoru
SccUiger, Philologist.
Montaigne^ French Essayist.
Cardan^ Italian philosopher.
Sealing wax comes into use
in Europe.
Foundation of Jesuit Colleges
in opposition to Protestant
Schools. The first at Co-
imbra, in Portugal.
Only two carriages in Paris-
horses and litters generally
used.
Snufffirst brought into France
— Knives first made in Eng-
land.
Torquato Tasso, Guarini,
poets.
Camoens, Portuguese poet.
Thomas Talh's, English mu-
sician.
1549. The English
Lihirgy comple-
ted and establish-
ed by act of Par-
liament.
1553. Northumber
land intrigues t(
settle the crown on
Lady Jane Grey,
his daughter-in-
law.
— Mary.^ —
Catholicism re-
stored.
1554. The queen
marries Philip, of
Spain.— Lord Dud-
ley and Lady Jane
Grey executed.
1555. Bloody perse-
cution of Protes-
tants.
1557. War with
France to support
Spain.— Calais
lost.
1558. — Eliza
5 E T H . ^J
1552. Fifth war
with Char-
les V.
Cecil, liOrd
Burleigh, Secreta-
tary of^State.
Protestantism
established.
The Puritans
begin to rise.
1568. —Mary, queen
of Scots, takes re-
fuge in England—
and is imprisoned.
1570. Civil wars of
the Desmonds in
in Ireland.
1560. Ca-
tholic-
ism abo-
lished
by par-
liament.
1565. : —
Mary
marries
Lord
Darn-
ley.
1565. : —
Revolt
of Pro-
testants .
1567. : —
Darnley
murder-
ed— the
queen
marries
earl of
Both-
well— is
dethron-
ed and
impri-
soned at
Lochle-
ven.
James
1570. :-
Lennox,
regent.
1557. The
French defeat-
ed at St.
Q,uentin.
1558. — at Gra-
velines.
1559. Peace of
Chateau —
Cambresis.
F r a n c i s
n.#—
Duke of
Guise, min-
ister.
1560.— Char •
lesIX.^
1562. Religious
liberty grant-
ed (o the Hu-
guenots.
First civil
religious war
—Huguenots
supported by
England — de-
feated at
Dreux.
1567. The se
cond war.—
Huguenots
defeated a
St. Denys.
1554. CcTcar..
in India, lost.
1556. Charles
abdicates —
Philip II.®
1557. Portu-
gal ;— Sebas-
1569. —routed
at Jarnac. —
C o n d e
killed.
1564. Acquisi-
tion of the
Philippines.
1567. Duke oJ
Alva, gover-
nor of the
Netherlands.
1570. War
with the
Turks.— Na-
val victory
at Lepanto."
1463-1598.]
THE world's progress.
119
1556
^558
Treaty of Passau secures reli-
gious liberty to the Protes-
tants.
Fruitless siege of Menlz.
Charles abdicates.
-Ferdinand I
king of Hungary and'Sbhe-
mia.
Coronation by the pope relin-
quished.
-M aximilian II. ^
Ottoman
Italy. Empire. ^he World, elsewhere.
1550. .Julius
III., pope.
1555, Marcel-
lusll.jpope.
Paul IV..
(CarafTa) '
pope.
1559. Pius IV,
(Medici)
pope.
iPeace of
Chateau —
Cambresis
terminates
the French
wars in Italy.
Tranquil-
lity for 66
years.
1562. Council
of Trent re-
assembled.
1566. Pius v.,
pope.
1569. Florence,
a grand du-
chy.
Cosmo
d e Medi -
c i , declared
grand duke
of Tuscany,
by Pius V.
1551. Tripoli
taken from
the Maltese
knights.
1552. Invasion
of Hungary.
1553. War with
Persia.
Building of
t he mosque
of Solyman-
yah, at Con- 1
siantmople. I
1559. Naval
victory of
Calves, gain
ed by Dra-
gut.
Military
power of
the Turks at
its greatest
height, un
derSoliman
1565. Unsuc-
cessful siege
of Malta.
1566. Death of
Soliman at
the siege of
Sigeth.
Selim II.
1570.
1571.
War of Venice with
the Porte.
Cyprus reduced by the
, Turks.
I Battle of
LepHHio.
1.553. New Mexico disco vei«d
by the Spaniards.
1456. India:— .lelaleddin Ak-
bar, a patron of science and
literature, aided by his min-
isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh
Faizi.
—raises the Mogul em-
pire to its greatest splendor.
1559. Denmark and Norway :
^^
— Frederic II. ^g
Decrease of the influence
of the Ilanse towns.
1560. Sweden :— Eric XIV. ^
1562. War with Russia and
Poland. — An English am-
bassador in Persia.
1564. Coligny sends a colony
of Huguenots to Florida-
destroyed by the Spaniards.
156^ Prussia: — Albert Frede
ric.®
Sweden:— John 1II.^>—
1270 Peace of Stetin, between
Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden.
1 57 1 Russia devastated by the
khan of Crim Tartary.—
Moscow burnt.
120
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period VIIL-
1573
1577
1582
Proqrbss op Society, etc.
Cervantes, author of Don
Quixotte,
Titian, aud Paolo Veronese,
painters.
Sir Francis Drake's voya^
round the world. 1578. The queen
sends help to the
1586
1588
1590
Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia.
Gregorian Reformation of the
Calendar.
Greenland discovered by Sir
Francis Drake.
Tobacco first brought lo Eu-
rope.
First newspaper in England.
Telescopes invented by Jan-
sen, a German.
Tasso, Italian poet.
The Carracci, celebrated pain-
ters.
In England i—Spenser,
Shakspeare, Beau-
mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon-
son.— Napier invents loga-
rithms.
Lord Bacon, celebrated phi-
losopher.
Lope de Vega, dramas and
novels.
Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro-
nomers.
revolted Nether-
lands.
1583. Levant Com-
pany chartered.
158i. Raleigh's co-
lony in Virginia.
1585. War with
Spain.
1586. Sir Philip
Sidney killed at
Zutphen.
1587. The Queen of
Scots beheaded.
1588. The Spanish
armada destroyed.
1589. Alliance with
Henry II. in aid
of Protestantism.
— Troops sent to
France.
1593. Act for reli-
gious conformity.
\m\. Sir John Haw-
kins's Vovages.
1596. Cadiz taken,
and the Spanish
fleet burnt, by the
earl of Essex.
Sir Robert Cecil,
minister.
1599. Troubles in
Ireland : — Revolt
of O'Neill, earl of
Tyrone.
Scot-
land.
1572. Massacre
of Sc. Bar-
tholomew,
1573. Peace of
llochelle.
1574. —II e n -
ryiii.®
Fifth war
with the Hu-
guenots.
1576. The Ca-
tholic
League.
1577. Sixth re-
ligious war.
1581. :—
Cow-
rie's
conspi-
racy
against
the king.
1590. :—
The
king
marries
Anne, of
Den-
mark.
Spain and
Portugal.
1588. Revolt of
Paris.
1589. House
of B o u r
bo n :
— II E N R Y
IV. #-
1590. Siege of
Paris, raised
by the Spa-
niards.
1593. Henry
abjures Pro-
testantism.
1594. Jesuits
banished.
1595. War with
Spain con-
tinued.
1598. Peace of
Vervius.
Ministry of
Sully: —
restoration
of order.
Edict op
Nantes
--granting
toleration to
Protestants.
1578. Port. :—
Henry.^J-
1580. Portugal
falls under
Spanish do-
minion.
1588. Defeat of
the Spanish
armada.
1589. English
vohmteers
under Drake
and N orris,
repulsed
from Lisbon.
1598. Philip
m. m—
L453-1598.]
THE world's progress.
121
Germany.
Italy.
1576 Rodo]ph I Li-
king of Bohemia and IJun
gary.
1572. Gverrovy
XIII., pope.
1573. CypriLs
yielded to
the Porte ;
I574.FJoi-ence;
-Frances Ma-
ria succeeds
Cosmo.
Ottoman
Empire.
The World, elsewhere.
The imperial authority di.9re-
garded by the princes of the
empire, who wage war
among thcm.selves.
1580. Cliarles
Emmanuel,
duke of Sa-
voy.
1585. Sixtus
v., pope,
active and
energetic—
corrects
abu.ses in
the church ;
restores the
Vatican li-
brary.
peace with V
nice.
1574. — Murad
HI. ^-
1576. War with
Persia.
1574 Poland .—Henry, of Va-
lois.^^
1575 Poland :— Stephen Ba-
iliori.w —
1 580. War with
the Druses
in Syria.
1583. First
trade witli
England.
1594
Union of Protestants at Ileil-
bronn.
1590. Urban
VII., popo.
(i reirory
XIV., pope.
1591. Innocent
IX., pope,
two months,
Clement
VIII., pope.
1592. Thelli-
alto and Pi-
azza di San
Marco built
at Venice,
15-89. Predato-
ry incur-
sions of the
Cos.^ncks.
Revolt of
'iio Janiza-
5:);]. \Va
I he !•;
with
11} lire
-ary.
11
1594. Tlu
Grand Vi-
zier (alces
Raab.
1595. Moham-
med III.^
Turki&li
power in
Hungary de-
cline's ; de-
feated at
Gran— re-
volt of Wal-
lachia.
1597. Moham-
med leads his
troops, and
defeats the
(.ermaii.s at
Agria.
1578. Alliance of Sweden and
Poland against Russia.
iu79. C 0 m m e n c e ni e n t
o f t h e Republic ol
HOLLAND, by the union
at Utrecht :
William, Prince
0 f Orange, stadthol-
der.
1584. North America:
—First English colony found-
ed in Virginia, by Sir W.
^Raleigh.
1585. Persia acquires power
under Abbas the Great.
Holland : — Maurice, of
Orange, stadtholder.
1586. Battle of Zutphen: death
of Sir Philip Sidney.
1583. Denmark ; — Christian
IV. A —
1592. Sweden : — Sigismund,
king of Poland.
India:— Mizam Shah, re-
pulsed from Choul, by the
Poriugupse.
1594. The Falkland Isles dis-
covered by Hawkins.
1595. The Dutch first in India.
Sweden :— The regent as-
sumes independent autho-
rity.
1598. Russia: — Boris Godti
nov,^^ begins a new
dynasty.
Sigismund lands in Swe
den, to re-establish his pow-
er—but is defeated, and re-
turns to Poland.
122
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PERIOD IX.— 120 years.^
Progress of Society, etc.
English East India Compa-
ny founded.
Exportation of English wool
prohibited.
Conference at Hampton Court.
New Translation of the Bi-
ble hegun: (published 1611).
Dr. Gilbert discovers the powd-
er of electricity, and of con-
ductors and non-conductors.
Telescopes invented by Gali-
leo.
Coffee at Venice.
Tobacco in Virginia.
Inductive Philoso-
Bacon's
phij.
Harvey discovers the circula-
tio7i of the blood.
T her vio meters invented by
Drebel.
Inigo Jones, celebrated archi-
tect.
Martin Opitz, German poet.
Negro Slavery co -.imenced in
Virginia.
Peter Paul Rubens., painter.
Massinger, the dramatist.
Kepler's " Astronomia Nova
Celestis.'^
Torricelli invents the barome-
ter.
The Parian marbles brought
to England by the earl" of
Arundei,
Gazettes first published in
Venice.
1604.— Acadia co-
lonized by the
French.
1606. — Discovery
of Hudson's Bay,
1607.— E n g I i 8 h
settlement at
Jamestown
(1st permanent
one in N. Ame-
rica.)
1608. —Quebec
founded.
1609. — Jesuit mis-
sions in Para-
guay.
1616.— The Tobac-
co plant introdu-
ced into Virgi-
nia.
1620.— Negro
slaves first im-
ported to Virgi-
nia.
Emigra-
tion of Pu-
ritans to
New Eng-
land.
1621. —John Car-
ver, 1st Gover-
nor of N. E.
1624. New Am-
sterdam set-
tled by the Dutch.
1627. Boston found-
ed.
1629. VVouter Van
Twiller, gover-
nor of New Am-
sterdam.
1601. Earl of Essex be
headed.
1603.— James I.^-
U II ion of the
Engli^iJi and
Scotch crowns
1605. The Gunpowder
Plot.
1612. English factories at
Surat.
16k}. Ministry of Villiers,
duke of Buckingham.
1617. Sir Francis Bacon,
lord chancellor.
1618. Sir Walter Ra-
leigh's unsuccessful
voyage to America-
he is" beheaded on his
return.
France.
1610. Assassi-
nation of
Henry IV.,
by Ravail-
lac.
Louis
XIII, .W
(9 years old).
Mary de Me-
dici, regent.
1614. Last as-
sembly of the
States-gene-
ral,
1615. The king
marries
Anne, of
Austria.
Civil war . —
C o n d o
heads the
Hugue-
nots.
1624. Ministry
of Cardinal
Riche-
lieu.
625.— Charles 1.®
Buckingham, prime
minister.
1627. War with France, in support of
the Hugue-
nots.
Rochelle
1629. No parliament for reduced by
eleven years. famine — af-
1630. Peace with France. ter a siege o.'
ten mon*hs.
THE world's progress.
1^98-171S.---Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII.. of Sweden.
123
Spain
A.D.
AND
Portu-
gal.
Germany.
Italy.
Ottoman
Empire.
The World, elsewhere.
1601. Sweden : Charles IX. W
1605. Leo XI.,
1605. Revolt in
1605. India : —.Tehangir, sul-
pope.
Syria and
tan.
Paul v.,
Caramania,
1606. Truce of Co-
pope.
under the
morra, for twenty
pasha of
years, with the
Aleppo.
Porte.
1606. Com-
mercial
1608. Protestant
treaty with
u?iion, under Fre-
France and
deric, the elector
Holland.
palatine.
Tobacco
1609. India :— Arrival of Haw-
1609
Expul-
sion of
1610. The Catholic
1609.Tuscany:
first brought
kins, first English envoy
League, under the
—Cosmo II.
to Turkey.
from the East India Com-
the
duke of Bavaria.
pany.
Moors,
1612. Matthias.
Sweden : — G u s t a v u a
War of
the
*-
Leghorn,
lulo
Auoipnus. ^^
Mont-
the ernpori-
1611. Sweden: — War with
ferrat
um of the
Denmark.— Calmar and Ris-
succes-
1615. Truce of Co-
Levant trade.
by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern,
sion in
niorra confirmed.
minister.— Russia devasta-
Italy.
1618. The Thirty
Years' W a r
begins.
1619.— Ferdinand
1617. -Musta-
ted by Poles and Tartars.
Russia : — Michael Ro-
manoff, czar.
II.^__
pha I.® —
1615. Denmark .-—First stand-
161S. Conspi-
ing army.
racy of Bed-
1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe,
1621
Dutch
1620. Victory of the
mar, the
1618. — Osman
ambassador from James I.,
war.—
White Mountain,
Spanish en-
II. ^
of England.
Spain
near Pnigiie.
voy, to re-
Sweden predominates in
sup-
Massacre of
duce Venice
Great Per-
the north.
ports
Prague.— The Pro-
under sub-
sian victory
1618. The Synod of Dort—
Austria .
tes'.ant religion to-
jection to
at Shibli.
Arminius condemned.
Philip
tally suppressed.
Spain.
16-20 War with
Settlement of Tanquebar,
IV.^
Poland, and
in Cororaandel.
1621. Gregory
unsuccess-
XV., pope.
ful invasion
1621. Dutch West India Com-
1625
Defeat
1626. Victory of Til-
Tuscany : —
of Poland.
pany incorporated.
of Span -
ly over Christian
Ferdinand 11.
1622. Persia :— Ormuz gained
lleet oir
IV., of Denmark,
1623. The fa-
IG23. Murad
from the Portuguese by the.
Lima,
at Lutter.
mous library
IV. # —
restores tran-
help of the English.
by the
1628.WalIenstein
of the Pala-
1625. Netherlands : — Henry
Dutch.
recovers all the
tine at Hei-
Frederic—Breda, taken b)
lO-i.')
Naval
shores of the Bal-
delberg, sent
quillity.
Spincla.
war
tic, except Stral-
to Rome.
■
with
sund.
1628. General
1625. Truce
16-27. Persia :— Shah Soofi I,
Eng-
1629. Gustavus Adol-
Italian war
with the em-
1629. Peace of Lubeck.
land.
phus lands in Ger-
on the deatli
|)ire renew-
1630
Peace
many. — Diet of
of the duke
ed.
with
Ratisbon. — Wal-
of Mantua.
Eng-
lenstein dismissed.
land.
succeeded by Til-
ly-
124
THE world's progress.
[Period IX.--
1630
1631
PRoaRESs OP Society, etc.
Lotteries for money first men-
tioned.
Calico first imported into Eng-
land.
1638
1639
1643
Edward Coke, the great ju-
rist.
Pedro Calderon de la Barca,
Spanish dramatist.
Flourishing period of flower
trade in the Dutch cities.
Rembj-andt, Van Dyke, pain-
ters.
The Jansenists, founded by
Jansenius, bishop of Ypres
Printing in America.
First Swedish manufactories.
Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and
Claude Lorraine, French
painters.
Coffee brought to England by
Nat. Conopius.
The Dutch sole
masters of Bra-
zil.
1632. Mail/land
settled by a colo
ny under Lord
Baltimore.
1635. Con?iecticut
settled. — Guada-
loupe and Mar-
tinique, by the
French.
1630. Wentworth, earl of
Strafford, minister.
Laud, archbishop of
Canterbury.
1633. The king visits
Scotland — is crowned
at Edinburgh.
Cond6 and Turenne, the great-
est generals of the age.
1637. Mai7ie and
New Hampshire
colonized.
Harvard Col-
lege founded.
16.39. First print-
ing office in Ame-
rica, at Cam-
bridge, by Sam.
Green.
1640. Whole num-
ber of emigrants
to New England
previous to this.
21,000.
1643. Confedera-
tion of the colo-
nies of New
England, for
mutual defence.
1637. Trembles in Scot-
land, caused by Char-
les's plan to overthrow
the Scotch presbyterian
church, and enforce
episcopacy.
1639. War with Scotland.
1640. Parliament assem-
bled— dissolved with-
out effecting any thing.
The Scotch invade
England— take posses
sion of Newcastle.
The Long Parlia-
ment, Nov. 3.
Impeachment of Straf-
ford and Laud.
1641. Strafford beheaded.
—Courts of Star Cham-
ber and High Commis-
sion abolished.— Rebel-
lion of Roger Moore in
Ireland. —Massacre of
Protestants by Irish Ca-
tholics.
1642. Civil War and
Re volution .
Rise of Roundheads
and Cavaliers, both of
the popular party. —
Battle of Edgehill, inde-
cisive.
1643. Royalists victorious
at Carlsgrane— defeated
at Newbury.— Solemn
league and covenant be-
tween the Scotch and
English parliaments.
1631. Treaty
with Swc.
den and the
popular prin-
ces again-'t
the emjDer-
or.
1635. Alliance
with Holland
against Sj)aiii,
for the par-
tition of the
Austrian Ne-
therlands.
1636. Alliance
with Sweden
against Aus-
tria.
Invasion of
Gascony by
the Span-
iards, and of
Picardy, by
the Impe-
rialists, who
threaten Pa-
ris.
1638. Invasior.
of Spain,
siege of Fon-
tarabia.
1640. Turin ta-
ken by the
French.
The first
Louis d'ors
struck.
1641. Alliance
with Portu-
gal against
Spain. — Ca-
talorda and
Rousillon re-
volt, and sub-
mit to France.
1612. Cinq
Mars anil de
Thou be-
headed.
1643.-L o u I s
XIV.^-
(the Great.)
Anne, oj
Austria, re-
gent.
Victory of
Roscroi over
the Span-
iards, by
Condu.
Ministry o!
Cardinal Ma
zarine.
1598-1718.]
THE world's progress.
i25
Spain
AND •
PORTU-'
1640
Germany.
Loss of
the Ja-
panese
trade.
Portu-
gal re-
gains
her in-
depe.i-
dence,
under
John IV.
duke of
Bragan-
1631. Sack of Mag-
deburg, by Tilly.
— Guslavus Adol-
phus lakes May-
163:3. Defeat and
death of Tilly, at
Lech. — Gustavus
takes Munich. —
Wallenstein again
in command. —iJat-
tlc of Lutzen.—
Victory and death
of Gustavus Adol-
phus.
1635. Peace of Prague
with Saxony.
1636. Swedes victo-
rious at Wittstock.
1637.— F erdinand
in.^
Galas successful
asTiiiiist the Swedes.
16;«. Bernhard. of
Sax(! Weimar, de-
I'eats the Imperial-
ists at Hheintield—
takes Brisac.
1639. Battles of 01-
nitz and Brandiez,
gained by the Swe-
dish general, Ban-
ner.
1640. Prussia-— Fre
deric William.
Italy.
1631. Peace of
Chierasco.—
The influ-
ence of France
increases.
1642. The Swedes de
feat the Austrians
at Leipsic.
1643. —invade Hol-
stein, and compel
the Danes to desert
Austria.
Ottoman
Empire.
leiW.Murad in-
vades Per-
sia — takes
Falreeze.
1636. Pence
with Poland
renewed.
1637. Troubles
on the Tar-
tar frontier;
Azoph taken
by the Cos-
sacks.
Bagdad ta-
ken by the
Turks.
All the con-
quests of Ab-
bas recover-
ed.
1640. Ibraliim,
The World, elsewhere.
1632. Sweden : — Christinas
queen. ^
1632. Sweden : — Oxenstiern,
regent.
Russia :— War with Po-
land ; two vears' siege of
Smolensko. - Russian army
capitulates, and the Polish
king advances to Moscow.
1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad-
vantageous to Ru.ssia.
1639. Holland. —Great naval
victory by Van Tromp^oyex
the Spanish fleet in the
Downs.
1640. India :— Madras founded
by the English.
1642. Recap-
ture of Azoph
from the Cos-
sacks.
126
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Peiiod IX. — llOyemi. —
1646
PRoaREss OF Society, etc.
Des Cartes^ French philoso-
pher.
Air guns invented.
1648
1654
1655
Engraving in tnezzotinto, im-
proved by Prince Rupert.
Railroads with icoodcn rails,
near Newcastle.
Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid-
ney, English writers.
Le Seur and Le Brun, French
painters.
Air jncmps invented.
About this time flourish 3Io-
Here, La Fontaine, Cor-
rieille, Madame de Sevig-
ne, Rochefoucatdt, Racine,
Boileau, and Pascal, in
France.
Velasquez and Murillo, Span-
ish painters.
1646. IViomas
Mayhew, preach*
er to the Indians,
shipwrecked.
1647. Peter Stay-
vesant, governor
of New Amster-
dam.
1648. Cambridge
platform adopt-
ed.
1649. J. Winthrop,
governor of Con-
necticut.
1650. Settlement of
North Carolina.
1652. John Cotton
died.
Great Britain.
1655. E. Winslow
died.
1644. Battle of Marston
Moor — royalists defeat-
ed.
1645. Battle of Naseby.
1646. The king seeks re-
fuge in the Scottish
camp.
1647. — is delivered up to
parliament for .£400,000.
164S. Cromwell routs the
Scotch, under Hamil-
ton. The Presbyte-
rians expelled from
parliament, which re-
ceives the name of " the
Rump."
1649. Trial and execution
of the king.
The Commonwealth.
1650. Cromwell subdues
Ireland.
The Scots proclaim
Charles II. He
1651. enters England— is
defeated at Worcester,
and escapes to France!
1652. Naval war with
Holland. Blake,
A s c o u g h , and
P e n n , English ad-
mirals.
1653. Long parliament
dissolved by Crom-
well.— " Barebone's par-
liament " summoned.
Oliver Crom-
well,Lord Pro-
tector.
Milton, private secre-
tary to Cromwell.
1654. Peace of Westmin-
ster. Alliance with
Holland.
1655. War with Spain.—
Jamaica conquered by
Penn.
1658. Death of Cromwell.
— R i c h a r d Crom-
well, Protector.
France.
1645. : — Mar.
shalTurenne
takes Treves.
1648. Factions
of the Fron-
de ; dissen-
sions foment-
ed by Cardi-
nal d e R e t z .
1649. Court re-
moves to St.
Germains. —
Siege of Pa-
ris.
16.50. Conde,
C o n t i , and
L o n g u e -
V i 1 1 e , im-
prisoned.—
Turenne
llees to the
Spaniards.
1652. Maza-
rine retires
to Sedan.
Conde flies
to Spain.
1653. Mazarine
enters Paris
in triumph.
1659. Peace of
the Pyre-
nees.— Mar-
riage of Lou-
is XIV. to
Maria The-
resa, of Spain.
1598-1718.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
127
Spain
AND
Ottoman
A.D.
Portu-
Germany.
Italy.
Empire.
The World, elsewhere.
gal.
1644. Livasion of
1G44. Innocent
1644. Naval victory of the
Hungary, by Ra-
X., pope.
Swedes over the Danish
coezi — I lie empe-
licet.
ror forced to yield
1G45. War with
1645. Sweden :— Peace of
to the demands of
Venice.
13 ronisebro with Denmark.
the protesiants.
164G. Revolt of
Naples, un-
der M a s -
sani ell 0 .
Candia, the
theatre of
Vv'ar.
1647. Netherlands:- William
11.
China: — The Tartar;
place a prince of their own
on the throne — the first ol
the present dynasty of Tsing.
1648. Peace of
164S. Moham-
1648. Poland:— The Ukraine
Westpha-
med IV.
Cossacks revolt, and cut the
lia, signed at
Polieh army to pieces.
Munster, Itetween
— ^.John Cassimir.^^ —
France, the em-
pire, and Sweden.
—The principle ol
a balance of pow-
er in Europe tiisi
recognized.
1650. Moham-
med Riopri-
li, gKUid vi-
zier.
1653.Naval de-
feat by the
Venetians in
the Archipe-
lago.
1653. Holland : — J o h n d c
Witt, Grand Pensionary ;
D e K u y t e r , admiral.
1654. Defeat and death of
1054
Brazil
recover-
ed from
Tromp.
Sweden:— Christina re-
signs.—Charles X., 1st of
tlie
Dutch.
1G55. Alexan-
the House of Deux Ponts.®
1G55
War
der VII.,
Poland :— War with Rus-
with
1607. —Leopold
pope.
1657. War with
sia.
Eng-
..*-
Racoczi, for
1657. Denmark :— W^ar against
land.
aiding Swe-
the Swedes, who overrun
den against
Denmark, and menace Co-
Poland.
penhagen.
1658. Denmark : — Naval vie
tory over the Swedes.
Denmark :— Peace of Rus
kilde.
128
THE WOR^dV^ progress.
[Period JX.—V20 years.--
1662
Progress of Society, etc.
1665
1666
1666
Logwood first cut in the bay
of Honduras.
Salvator Rosa, landscape
painter.
Iluygens, Dutch astronomer.
Persecution of Jansenists in
France.
Chain shot invented by De
Witt.
Canal of Languedoc, from the
Mediterranean to the Atlan-
tic.
1663. Canada made
a royal colony.
1663. Elliot's In-
diaii Bible prin^
ted.
1664. New York
occupied by the
English.
1667 Gobelin tapestry manufactory
in Paris.
1670
1671
16G7. —ceded to
them by the
peace of Breda
1675
Bayonets invented at Bay-
onne.
Orrery invented.
Foundation of the Academy
of Architecture, and the
Hotel des Invalides, at Pa-
Cassini, Italian astronomer
and mathematician.
D'Herbelot, Pascal, Bour-
daloiie, La Bruyire, Mai-
branche, French writers.
Christopher Wren, arcliitect.
commences St. Paul's.
Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch
painter.
William Temple, historian.
Butler, Waller, ami Dryden,
English poets ; Henry
More, Leighton, Baxter,
Boyle.
Mansart, architect ; Giradon,
sculptor, of France.
1670. Conclusion of
the ' American
treaty ' between
England and
Spain.
1659. Kiclifu-d resigns.—
Rump pai-liament call-
ed, but soon expelled.
R e s 1 1) r a t i 0 n of
the Stuarts.
1660— Charles II.®
Hyde, earl >A
Clarendon, chancellor
and prime minister.
1661. New parliament.—
Alliance with Portugal.
1G62. Marriage with Ca-
therine, of Portugal.
Act of Uniformity.
Dunkirk sold to
France.
1661. War with Holland.
1665. Naval victory by the
duke of York.
Great Plague in
London.
1666. Great Fire in Lon-
don.
1667. Peace of Breda.
New York ceded to
England.
Banishment of the
earl of Clarendon.
1668 Triple league— Eng-
laiul, Sweden, and Hol-
land, against France.
1670. Tife Ca}>al min-
istry.--Secret treaty
with France.
1675. King Phi-
lip's War in
New England.
1677. Maine pur-
chased by Massa-
chusetts.
1G72. War with Holland
in conjunction with
France.
1673. Ministry of Danby.
Test Act passed.
1674. Peace with Holland.
1678. The Popi.sh Plot.
1661. Death o<
Mazarine.
Colbert,
comptroller-
general of
finance.
Lyonne,
Le Tellier.
1662. Disputes
with the pope.
—6000 troops
sent against
the Turks in
Hungary.
1664. French
East India
Company.
1666. Acade-
mie des Sci-
ences Lou vols.
1667. War with
Spain. Lou-
is claims
Spanish Ne-
iherlamls lor
his wife— in-
vades Bel-
gium.
1666. Peace of
Ai.x: la Cha-
pelle with
Spain.
1672. War with
Holland.
1673. French
ambassador
at Ispahan.
1674. The
Dutch de-
feated at the
battles of
Sinsheim
andMulhau-
sen.— Tu-
renne rava-
ges the Pala-
tinate.
1675. Death of
Turenne at
Sasbach.
Influence
of Pere la
Chaise, the
king's con-
fessor.
1677. Victory
over the
Prince of
Orange at
Mont-Cassel.
1678. Peace
of N i m e •
g u e n with
Holland and
Spain— re-
stores tran
quillity to
Europe.
1698-1718.]
THE world's progress.
129
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
Invasion
of Por-
tugual.
Germany.
Italy.
Ottoman
Empire.
IG63 Victory
of the
Portu-
guese
over the
Span-
iards at
Estre-
nias.
Spain : -
Charles
II. ^
Portu-
gal :—
Revolu-
tion at
Lisbon.
King de-
posed.
— Pedro
11.^
Peace of
Lisbon
with
Spain.
Nitard,
the Je-
suit, dri
veil
from
Spain.
War
with
Prance
to pro-
tect Hol-
land.
1663. Tlie Diet per-
manent at Ratis-
bon.
1664. Montecuculi
victorious over the
Turks at St. Go-
ihard.
1665. The Tyrol uni-
ted to Austria.
1669
1661. War
with Aus-
tria.
1662. Invasion
of Hungary,
The World, elsewhere.
1660. Demark :— Peace of Co-
penhagen. — The Swedes
restore Bornholm, and Dron-
theim.
Revolution in Denmark.
Sweden :— Charles XI.@
Peace of Oliva.
Prussia acknowledged in-
dependent.
1660. Poland : — Great victory
of Marshal J o li n S o -
b i e s k i over the Tartars.
1673. War of Austria
and France.
1675. Turenne and
Montecuculi op-
posed on the
Rhine. — Victory
of Consarbruck
over the French,
under Crequi. — '■
Treves taken.
1676. General revolt
of Hungarians un-
der Emeric.
1667. Clement
IX,, pope.
1669. Candia taken from Ve-
I nice by Kio-
prili.
Peace with the Porte.
1670. Cosmo
III., grand
duke of Tus-
cany.— War
between Ge-
noa and Sa-
voy.
Clement X.,
pope.
1674. Revolt of
Messina in
favor of
France.
1676. Messina
blockaded by
the Dutch
and Spanish
fleets.
Death of De
Ruyier.
Innocent XI.
pope.
Death of the
atheist, Spi-
noza.
1672. The Sul
tan invades
Poland.
1673. — defeat'
ed by Zo-
briski, a
Choezim.
1676. Peace of
Zurawno
with Poland.
1678. First war
with Russia,
on account
of the Cos-
sacks.
1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre-
da : loss of New Nether-
lands.
1668. First embassies from
Russia to France and Spain.
India :— Rise of the Mah-
ratta power.— Sevajee takes
and sacks Surat.
1670. Den. :-Christian V. W
1672. Sea fight between the
Dutch fleet, under De Witt
and De Ruyter, and the
English and French fleets-
Dutch defeated.
Den. r-Williara HI.®
1674. Poland:— John Sobies-
ki.^
1675. The Swedes invade
Brandenburg.
1677. Battle of the Lund, be-
tween the Swedes and Danes.
130
TlfE world's progress.
[Period IX.— 120 ycars.-^
1681
1683
C86
1687
1693
16U2
Progress of Society, etc.
Bernini, Italian sculptor.
Museum for Natural History,
at London.
Jardin des Plantes, at Paris,
Penny post established in Lon-
don.
Kemp/er's travels in Japan.
John Banyan, " Pilgrim's
Progress.''
Otto Von Guericke, inven-
tor of the air-pump and
electrical machine, died.
Telegraphs invented.
Newton^s Principia, publish-
ed.
G. Batt. Lnllij, from Flo-
rence, founder of French
opera music.
Arch. Corelli, celebrmed vio-
linist and composer at Rome.
White paper first made in
England.
Leibnitz, German philoso-
pher, founds the Academy of
Sciences a( Uerlin.
First opera in London.
Purcell, English musician.
Bank of England.
Telescopes, first rcjlccting
one made on the principles
of Sir Isaac Newton.
Witchcraft superstition in New-England.
Great Britain.
Rise of the names of
Whigs and Tories.
1686. Sir Edmund
Andros, governor
of New England.
1688. General sup-
pression of char-
ter governments.
1689. Montreal de-
stroyed by the
Five nations.
Leisler usurps the
government of
New York.
1690. The English
settlements of
Schenectady, N.
York, Casco, Me.
and Salmon Falls,
N. H., destroyed
by a party of
French.
Port Royal, No-
va Scotia, redu-
ced by Sir Wil-
liam Phipps.—
Expedition against
Canada, unsuc-
cessful.
1691. Schuyler
defeats the French
at La Prairie.
John Locke and Sir Isaac
Newton in England.
Boileau, Eenelon, and Bayle,
in France.
Bank of England.
Phosphorus discovered.
1692. New Hamp-
shire purchased
by Allen.
N. York : Leis-
ler executed.
1693. N. York :—
Episcopacy in-
troduced.
William and
Mary's College
founded.
1697. Kidd's pira-
1699. French colo-
ny in Louisiana.
— Gold mines in
Brazil.
16a3. "RyehousePlot."
Execution of Lord
Russel and Algernon
Sydney.
In this reign the Roy-
al Society of London
was instituted by Wil-
kins, bishop of Chester.
—Bombay ceded to
England.
1685.-James 11.^
Rebellion of Mon
mouth, in England, and
Argyle, in Scotland,
both defeated and exe-
cuted.
Judge Jeffries.
1686. The king lavors the
Catholics.
1687. — re-establishes the
Court of High Com-
mission.
16S8. "Revolution
0 F 1688."— The Whigs
and Tories unite in ap-
plying to the Prince of
Orange, who lands in
England with 15,000
men— the king flees to
France.
1689.— W i 1 1 i a m III.
and Mary II .^g-
War with France.
James II. lands in
Ireland— besieges Lon-
donderry.
1690. William in Ireland.
—Battle of the Boyne.
James deleated, returns
to France,
1691. Limerick taken, and
William acknowledged.
1692. Invasion of Eng-
land undertaken by the
French in favor of
James. — Naval victory
by the Dutch and Eng-
lish.
1693. Bank of England in
corporated.
1694. Death of queen
Mary.
1697. General peace
1698.First partition treaty,
between France, Eng
land, and the Empire to
dispose of the crown of
Spain.
16',)9. Visit of Peter the
Great.
France, the
most formi-
dable power
in Europe.
1683. Invasion
of the Span-
ish Nether-
lands.
1684. Truce of
Ratisbon for
twenty years
with Spain.
1685. Revo-
cation o f
the Edict
of Nantes.
1638. War of
Spain — the
Empire, Hol-
land, Savoy,
and England
against
France,
1689. Grand al-
liance against
France, head-
ed by Wil-
liam III.
1690, Naval
victory over
the Dutch
and English
off Dieppe.
Victory of
Luxemburg,
at Fleurus.
1692. Marshal
Luxem-
burg de-
feats William
at Steenkirk,
and
1693. —at Ne-
uvinden.
Institution of
t^e order of
St. Louis.
ofRy s wick
— between
France and
the allies.
1598-1718.J
THE world's progress.
131
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
1689
1691
1697
Revolt
of Cata-
lonia in
favor of
France.
Incur-
sion of
the
French
into
Aragon.
Peace
In-
trigues
for the
succes-
sion.
1680. Great part of
Alsace seized by
France.
16a3. Turkish war,
siege of Vienna by
the Turks— victory
of the Germans
and Poles, under
Charles, of Lor-
raine, and John
Sobieski.
Treaty of the
Hague against
France.
168G. League of
Augsburg against
France.
1686. Buda taken af-
ter being held by
the Turks 145
years.
1687. Decisive victo-
ry of Mohaez :
Croatia and Tran-
sylvania subdued.
Joseph I. crown-
ed king of Hun-
gary.
1689. Grand alliance
ratified at Vienna.
The Palatinate
desolated by the
French.
1690 Joseph I. elect-
ed king of the Ro-
mans by the Diet
of Augsburg.—
" Victor* \s over the
Turks.
phi
the
the Prince Eugene.
Ottoman
Empire.
1682. War with
Austria.
1683. Total
rout before
Vienna.
1684. Alliance of Venice with
Poland, and the Empire
against the Porte.
1689. Alexan-
der Vlli.,
pope.
of R y 8 vv i c k .
1697. Victory over
the Sultan Musta- !
ha at Zenta, by i
\&.n. Innocent
XII., pope.
1693. Battle of
Marsaglia —
the allies in
Italy defeat-
ed by the
Marshal (Ja-
tiiiat-
1685. Russia
declares war.
1687. Revolu-
tion in Con-
stantinople,
Mohammed
dethroned.
Solyman
11.^
1689. Defeat at
Nisa.
1690. Musta-
pha Kiopri-
li drives the
Austrians
across the
Danube— re-
covers Bel-
grade,
1691. Ah mud
IlA
Deleat and
death of Kio-
prili.
1694. Chio ta-
ken by the
Venetiaiis.
1695. Musta-
pha II. ^
1696. — • leads
his own ar-
my.—Victo-
ry of Olach.
1699. Peace of
Carlowitz.
The Otto-
man power
broken.
The World, elsewhere.
1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock-
holm.
1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe-
ter, ^J their sister, So-
phia, regent.
1683. Denmark :— The Code of
king Christian published.
1686. India :— The De<kincoi>
quered.
Golconda and Besapore.
1687. —The English factories
in Bengal suppressed— after-
wards restored.
1688. Prussia :— Frederic III.
Russia :— Ivan resigns —
Sophia is confined in a con-
vent :
1689. Peter the
Cf R E A T . >j^y
1692. Russia:- — First trade
with China.
India :— Height of the Mo-
gul power, annual revenue
je32,000,000.
China:— Great influence
of Jesuits.
1693. Sweden :— The king de-
clared absolute.
1695. Holland : Bombard-
ment of Brussels by the
French, under Villeroi.
1696. Poland :— Death oi So-
bieski—succeeded by
1697. —Frederic Augu.stus I.
Sweden :— C h a r l e s
X 1 1. W—( 15 years old.)
Russia :— Introduction of
various manufactures —
equipn)ent of a fleet, etc.
1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. f^
Alliance of Denmark, Rus-
sia, and Poland, against
Charles XII. oi Sweden.
132
THE world's TROGKLSS. [I^e; iod IX.— 120 i/ears.^
1700
Progress of Society, etc.
First manufactories in Russia
and Denmark.
Fenelon, Bossuet, Masillon,
in France.
National Deb:, of Englaml
commenced.
Godfrey Kneller, English
painter.
First Russian newspaper. —
St. Petersburgh founded.
Flourishing period of French
literature.— Great splendor
in tlie French court.
A newspaper in America.
Incorporation of the United
British iiast India Com-
pany.
Prussia acid discovered by
Diesbach.
A post-ojjice in xhnerica.
The famous bull '■' Unigeni-
tus " against ihe French. Jan-
senists.
Rise of commerce in Austria;
first manufactories.
Lato^s bank at Paris.
The monastery of Mafra, ' the
woniier of Portugal,' built.
Prior, Steele, De ''Foe, Addi-
son, fl lurish in England.
First stayiding army in Eng-
land,
The coffee tree brought from
Java to Surinam.
1701. Yale College
founeled.
1702. Rice intro
duced into Caro
lina from Mada-
gascar.
1703. Apalachian
Indians subdued,
Maine ravaged
by French and
Indians.
1704. Captain
Church's expe
dition against the
Iiuiians.
Boston News-
Letter, first Ai/ie-
rican periodical.
1706. Carolina in-
vaded by the
French and Span-
ish.
1707. Unsuccessful
expedition against
Port Royal.
1708. The Saybrook
jdatj'orrn, form-
ed.
1709. First paper
money in New-
Jersey.
1710. First post-
office at iNew
York.
Fruitless expe-
dition against Ca-
nada.
1713. "Queen
Anne's War "
closed by the
treaty of Utrecht.
Great Britain.
1715. Indian war in
South Carolina.
1717. New- Orleans
settled by the
F'rench.
1700. A British fleet sent
to assist Charles XII.,
of Sweden,
Foundation of the
ruitional debt in this
reign,
1701. War of the Spanish succession.
1702. The French mvade Holland, un
derBoulHers— repulsed by M a r 1 -
borough.
-Anne.
1703. Methuen treaty of
commerce with Portu-
gal.
1704. Marlborough enters
gains ihe battle of
Gibraltar taken by
Ilooke.
170t3.T reatyofunion
with Scotland.
Battle ol' Rannllies,
feated.
1707. Victory of Almanza
lish and Portuguese.
Tiie fi IS t United
Parliament of
(J r e a t Britain
meets.
1708. Battle ofOudcnarde,
feated.
Sardinia and Minor
the English.
Unsuccessful attempt
of the Pretender to land
in Scotland.
1710. Victory of Vendome
Dr, Sachevereli's trial.
— Collision of Wing
and Tory principles.
1713. Peace of U t
Perpetual separation
of France and S[)ain—
quires Newfoundland,
Jiud-son's Bay, aKso Mi
braltar. The Rhine is
between Germany and
1714. Factions at court —
disgrace of Harley,
chancellor of the exche-
quer.
Death of the queen.
— H o u s e of Hano-
ver:—
George l.W~
Robert Walpole, pre-
mier.
1715. Insurrection of .Ja-
cobites.—Battles of She-
rillinuir ami Preston.
War against Sweden.
1702, Revolt ol
the Hugue-
nots suppress-
ed by Mar-
shal Viliars.
Germany,
Blenheim.
Villcroi de-
over the Eng-
— French de-
ca captured by
atVillaviciosa.
1718. Quadruple al
Emperor, England, Ho
France against rhe desi
r e c h t .
of the crowns
England ac-
Acadia, and
norca and Gi-
the boundary
France.
1714. Peace of
Radstadt : the
Emperor ac-
knowledges
Philip on '
the cession
of Lombar-
dy. Na|)les,
anil Sardinia.
1715. Louis
XV,^-
Duke (d
Orleans re-
gent, — Du-
bois, minis-
ter.
1 i a n c e : th»
Hand, and
gns of Spain.
1598-1718.]
THE world's progress.
133
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
Death of
the king,
who
names
the duke
of Anjou
as his
success-
or.
Philip
v.#
The
arch-
duke
Charles
lauds at
Lisbon,
nd en-
ters
Spain.
Barcelo-
na taken
by the
allies.
Port. :—
John V.
English
and Por-
tuguese
enter
iMadrid.
Charles
leaves
Spain on
becom-
ing Em-
peror.
Barcelo-
na taken
by Ber-
wick.
Albero-
ni,
prime
minis-
ter of
Spain
1701. Grand alliance
between England,
the Empire, to pre
ol France and Spa
1702. Battles of Stul-
hafen, Ilochstedt.
and Spires, gained
by the French.
-J o 8 e p h
1710. Treaty of the
Hague between
England. Holland,
aiuF the Empire.
1711. — Charles
VI.^
Minirtiry ol Count
Linzendorf.
1713. Prugmatic
sanction, vesting
the succession to
Austria in the
daughters of Char-
1714. Peace of Ras-
tadt and Baden
with France.
1718. Quadru-
ple alliance
against Spain.
of the Hague,
Holland, and
vent the union
in.
1702. Victory
of Luzzace
gained by the
Flench over
the Impe-
rialists.
1706. French
driven from
Italy by
prince Eu-
gene.
1707. All the
Spanish pos-
sessions in
Italy aban-
dt)ned to the
allies.
Ottoman
Empire.
1703.
Hi.
Ahmed
1709. Charles
XII. takes
refuge at
liender—
iienco war
Willi Russia.
1714. War of Venice with
the Porte. I
1715. Corinth taken by the
Turks — the Emperor joins
Venice — sie ge of Corfu
raised on the news of their
1716. defeat at
the battle of
Peter war-
den.
1717. Defeat of
Crusca— loss
of Belgrade.
1718. Peace of Passarowitz,
between the Porte, Venice,
and Ilunga ry.
The World, elsewhere.
1700. Russia :— Peter the Great
invades Ingria— defeated by
Charles XII., at Narva.
War of the Northern
Powers.
1701. PRUSSIA erected into a
kingdom under
Frederic I.^g —
Charles XII. invades Po-
land—is victorious at Riga
1702. —enters Warsaw— takes
Cracow.
1703. Victory of Pultusk ■
Poland:— The throne cs-
clared vacant, and
1704. Stanislas Leetzinski
elected king.^g
1706. The Swedes victorious
over the Saxons and Rus-
sians at Traverstadt.
1707. Russia :— Revolt of the
Cossack Mazeppa.
1708. Charles invades Russia,
crosses the Dnieper, and is
1709. defeated at Pultowa.
Sweden at war with Den-
mark.
Poland :— Frederic Augus-
tus re-ascends the throne.
1712. Victory of the Swedes at
Gadebusche.
1713. Prussia :— Frederic Wii
liam I.^^
1714. Russia:— Naval victory
over the Swedes.— Aland and
Finland conquered.
1715. Netherlands Barrier
treaty of Antwerp with Aus-
tria.
Sweden : — Return of Char-
les—Prussia and Englan(i
join the alliance against him.
1718. Charles XII. invades
Norway ; is killed at the
siege of Fredericshall.
Sweden:— Ulrica Elea
134
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PERIOD X.— 97 years.--
A.D. Progress op Society, etc.
1725
1740
Cotton Mather^ ^^ Magnalia,"
and Increase Mather, Hist,
of War with Indians.
Inoculation introduced by
Lady Montague. Tiie same
year introduced into Boston
by Dr. Boylston.
Academy of Sciences at Peters-
burg.
The " Appellants,'' in France^
headed by the Cardinal de
Noailles, appeal from the
bull '' Unigenitus," to a ge-
neral council ; but without
effect.
Behring's Strait discovered.
Balloons invented by Guamac,
In England : : In France :
Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous-
Young, seau, Le
Thompson, Sage, Rollin.
Watts^ Lord Montesquieu.
Bolinr Woke.
Doddridge,
Chesterfield.
Halley, astronomer.
First Lodge of Freemasons in
Irish linen ?na?iuJ'actories,
and English steel and cutlery
flourish.
1719. First Philadelphia news-
paper.
1721. First New- York news-
paper.
1723. Vermont settled.
Increase Mather, died.
1724. Trenton, N. .!., founded.
1727. Great earthquake in
New-England.
1728. Cotton Mather, died.
Discovery ol ' (iiatr)ond
mines in Brazil.
1729. The Carolinas separated
I7:i2. Birth of Washington.
1733. Savannah founded.
England.
1719. Unsuccessful attempt to
invade Scotland by the Si^an-
iards.
"The South Sea Scheme."
1720. "Bursting of the Suuih
Sea bubble."
1721. Sir Robert Walp-le's
ministry continues.
Zr. Holberg, Danish drama-
tist.
America, at Boston.
1740. Tennessee first explored.
1742. Invasion of Florida by
Indians and Spaniards— re-
pulsed.
1725. Leaji e of Herrenhausen,
1727. George I. dies at Osna-
burg.
George II.® — -
1728. Pe»2e of Pardo witfi
Spain
1729. Treaty of Seville, be
1731. Treaty of Vienna with
Holland and the Empire.
1739. War with Spain.
1740. Porto Bello taken by Ad-
miral Vernon.— Anson's voy-
age round the world, and
capture of the Manilla gal
leon.
THE world's progress.
171S-1S16. —Deat/i of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo.
135
France.
1733
17^1
1740
The king assumes
ihe government.
Duke de Bourbon,
I minister.
CongresiS of Cam
bray
between England
Francs, Prussia,
and Holland.
Ministry of Cardi
nal F 1 e u r y ,
Congress of Sols-
sons dissolved,
without effecting
any thing.
tween England,
France, and Hol-
land.
War of the Polish
succession :
France, Spain,
and Sardi' lia.
Conquest of Lor-
raine.
War of the Aus-
trian succession
— Marshals Belle
isle and Broglio :
— defeated by the
allies at Dettin-
gen.
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
1725.
Alliance
1734. :—
Con-
quest of
Napi.'is
and Sici'
ly by
Don
Carlo;*.
Germany.
1739. :-
War
with
Eng-
land, for
infrac-
tions of
the Asi-
ento
treaty.
dnd Austria.
The World, elsewhere.
1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the
Spanish.
172U. Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity
restored in the north.
Sweden : — The queen abdicates in
favor of her husband.
1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope.
Frederic. ^1
Peace of Nystadt wnh Russia.
Russia: — Peter assumes the title
"Emperor of all the Russias."
1721. Turkey: — Mahommed Effendi, am-
bassador to Paris.
1723. China :— Christians expelled.
1723. Italv :— John Gaston, (de Medici),
grand duke of Tuscany.
1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians
attempt to dismember Persia.
1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope.
1725. Russia :— Catharine I., widow of
Peter. ^W
of Vienna, Spam, ^j.^ Turkey :— Partition treaty for seiz
17a3. War of the Po-
lish succession ;
Austria, Russia,
and Denmark.
1735. Preliminaries
of Viennarnot con-
cluded till 17.3S
1740. War of the Aus-
trian succession.
Maria The-
resa succeeds to
the hereditary
States.
1741. The French,
Saxons, and Bava-
rra.'^.s, overrun Aus-
tria, take Prague,
and crown Charles
VI. emperor, ^y
Treaty of Bres-
lau with Austria.
1743. The French
driven acro.ss the
Rhine.
he north and west provinces of
Persia.
J 1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria.
1726. Turkey :— First planting press
brought from Paris to Turkey.
1727. Russia :— Treaty with China.
Peter 11.^
1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad.
1728. Denmark:— Fire at Copenhagen,
destroys the public library.
—colony of Danes in Greenland.
1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.@
1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope.
Russia :— Anne.f^
1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus 11.^
The diet elect Stanislaus, but are
compelled by the Russian army to elect
Frederic.
17^^. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es-
capes to Koningsberg.
1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per-
sia by Nadir Shah.
1736. —war with Russia and Austria.
1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, grand
duke of Tuscany.
1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shah,
who takes and plunders Delhi.
1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated near
Choezim.
1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope
Turkey :— The Turks invaae Persia
-are repulsed by Ashraf
-peace of Belgrade.
136
THE world's PROGREbfe.
[Period A'. — 97 yturs.—
Progress of Society, etc.
Frederic the Great makes
great improvements in mt'li-
tary tactics— mixoA\xzQ9jly -
ing horse artillery.
Dui'ante and Leo, celebrated
musicians.
Haiidel, and Seb. Bach, musi-
cal composers.
Indigo first produced in Caro-
lina.
1748
1734
1753
1764
1766
Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo-
rian.
Dr. Franklin's discoveries in
electricity.
England introduces the "New
Style " Calendar.
British Museum foutided.
British.
Allan Ram
say,
Shenstone,
Gray,
Collins,
Akenside,
Churchill.
Helvetius, Fr
Racine, Fr.
Gellert, Ger.
Winckle-
7nan7i, Ger.
John Rusbrachy sculptor.
Hogarth, Wilson, ^ Joshua
Reynolds, painter.s.
Potatoes first planted in
France, by Turgot.
Niebuhr's travels in Arabia.
Wesley Sr Whitejield preach.
Philadelphia Medical School,
first in America.
Wallis and Carteret's voyage
of discovery in the South
Seas.
1745. Louisburg and Cape
Breton taken from France
by the English.
1747. David Brainerd and
Benjami?i Coleman, died.
Great Britain.
1744. Naval victory over the
French and Spanish fleets in
the bay of Hie res.
1745. Scotch rebellion—Char-
les Edward lands in Scot-
land.
1746. he is defeated at Cul-
loden.
1 747. Victories over the French
off' Belle-isle and Cape
Finisierre.
1749. English settlement in
Nova Scotia.
1752. Hostilities between Eng
1754. Washington's mission to
the French.
1755. Defeat of Braddock.
1750. Oswego and Ft. Granby
taken by the French.
1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap-
tured.
1758. Repulse of Abercrombie
at Ticonderoga.
Fort Du UuHsne taken.
1759. Invasion of Canada-
death of Wolfe — Quebec
taken.
Capture of Niagara,
Crown Point, and Ticimde-
roga.
1763. End of the " Old French
War."
1765. " American Stamp Act "
resisted in Massachusetts
and Virginia.
First Colonial Congress at
New- York.
1748. Peace of Aix la
mutual restitution of con
1752. The new style intro-
duced ; the year hereafter
commences Jan. 1.
land and France on the boun
1756 "Seven Years'
Subsidiary alliance with
Prussia.
Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m
Pitt, the eider.
1757. Victory of Plassey, in
India.
1759. Naval victories over the
Lagros, and off* Brest.
Surat, in India, taken
from the Dutch.
1760.— George III .^-
1761. Earl of Bute, premier.
1762. War with Spain.
Conquest of Havana,
Trinidad, and Manilla.
1763. Peace of Paris
1765. Bengal ceded to the East
India Company by the
treaty of Allahabad.
1718-1815.]
THE world's PllOGllESS.
137
1744
1745
1746
France.
War declared
against England
and Austria^
Battle of Fontenoy,
allies defeated.
Tlie Frencii victo-
rious by land,
but unsuccessful
by sea.
War with Holland.
C h a p e 1 1 e
quests.
dariesof NovaSco-
, tia.
1753 Influence of Ma-
dame de Pompa-
I dour.
War."
Capture of Minor-
ca from tlie Eng-
lish.
1757
1758
1760
1761
Invasion of Hano-
ver.
Defeat at Crefeldt.
on the Rhine.
French ofT Cape
Attempt to invade
Ireland.
Loss of all Canada.
The 13 ourbon Fa-
mily Compact.
Siege and capture
of Belleisle, by
the English.
between France,
Spain and Eng-
land.
1764 Expulsion of the
Jesuits.
Spain
AND
PORTir-
GAL.
1746. :-
Ferdi-
nand VI
1745. Charles dies at
Munich.
House of
Lorraine:
— F r a n c i s I . ^^
husband of Mana
Theresa.
1748
pelle;
the on
1759 : -
Charles
Peace of Aix la Cha-
Spain, and Pru.s.sia
ly gainers by the
war.
17r)(>. Sovcti Years'
War of Austria
and Pru^^sia.
Invasion and
conquest o/' Saxo-
ny, by r'reileric II.
Alliance with
France.
1757. Prussians vic-
torious at Prague.
Rossi),! ch, Les.'^a,
and IJresIau.
The French take
Verdun and Bre-
men.
1758. French defeated
at Crefeldt,
1759. and at Minden
Victory at Max-
en over the Prus-
sians.— Dresden re-
taken.
1760. Great victory
at TorgaUj by Fre-
deric.
1762. Prussians victo-
rious at Freiburg.
1763. Peace of Hu-
bertstrug.
1765. Joseph II.
The World, elsewhere.
1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .^@f
(the Great.) Prussia increases in im-
portance.—War with Au.stria.
Russia :— Ivan V.
1741. Sweden :— War with Russia.
Svvedes driven out of Finland.
Russia :— Elizabeth. ^g
1743. —Peace of Abo with Sweden.
1743. Turkey :— War with Persia.
—Defeat near Eri van.
1744. India :— Hostilities between French
and English.
1741. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French
and Spaniards, who take
174.1 —Parma, Milan, and Placcntia.
--G(Mioa bombarded by the English.
1746. —French and Spaniards driven from
Lom!)ardy.
1746. Denmark :-Fredoric V.^
1747. Netherlands :-William IV.
P(n-;^ia :— Revolution : Nadir.
Sl)ali murdered.
17.")1. Holland:— William V sfadtholder.
Deinriark :— Ministry of Count Bern-
storir.
Sweden :— House of Holstein Got-
torp :—
Adolphus Frederic.^
17.34. Italy :— Tlie Corsicans, under Paoli,
revolt Hdainst Genoa.
175-1. Turkey :— Othinan III.
1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan-
tinople.
1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na-
bob of Bengal.
17.*>7. Turkey :— Mustapha III.
1757. Prussia :— Russian invasion.
1758. —victory of Londorf
1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope.
1759. Prussia :— The king defeated a(
Kunnersdorf.
1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken.
India:— Shah Alim II.
Siesie and capture of Pondicherry,
by the English.
Kiniidom of Mysore founded by
II y d e r A 1 i .
1762. Russia: Peter HI.® (six
months).
C a t h a r i n e II .^J
1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Poniatowski.
1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad.
—Establishment of a British empire
1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duke
of Tuscany.
1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. _^
1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egypt
revived under Rod van and Ali Bey.
138
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Pe7 iod X. — 97 years. —
PKoaRKss OF Society, etc.
Fiiist spinning machine in England.
Cook's first voyage of discovery.
Bruce discovers the source of the Nile.
Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua
Reynolds, first president.
Letters of Junius.
VVhitefield dies at Newhuryport.
Captain Cook discovers New Caliloniia.
The Spinning- JENNY, invented by Robert
Arkwright.
The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt
and Bolton.
In England.
Goldsmith,
VVarburLon,
Johnson,
Littleton,
Lowth,
Garrick,
Hume,
Robertson,
Blackstone,
Adam Smith,
Home Tooke,
Priestley,
Horsley,
Burke,
Pitt,
Fox,
Cooper,
Sheridan,
McPherson,
Burns.
Kaimes,
Reid.
France.
Voltaire,
Rousseau,
Diderot,
Condillac,
Jijssien,
Lavoisier,
La Har[)rt.
Barthelerny,
Burton.
Ger. Mosh-
eim,
Zimmerman,
Kant,
Klopstock,
Lessiiig,
VVielanil,
Herder,
Goethe,
Schiller,
Sw. liinnneus,
It. Meiastasio.
Ilus. Kheras-
kov,
Kostrov.
Deerhavin,
Bogdanovich,
Khemnitzee.
United States.
1768. Boston occupied
by the British troops.
1769. Daniel Boone ex-
plores Kentucky.
1772. H a n c o c k , S .
Adams, and P a -
trick Henry,
promote the revolu-
lion.
1773. Tea destroyed at
Boston.
1774. Continental Con-
gress at Philadelphia.
1775. AMERICAN
WAR:
April 19, Skirmish at
Lexington.
June 17, Battle of Bun-
ker's Hill
P r e s c o 1 1 , P u t -
n a m , tfe W ii r r e n .
WASHINGTON,
commander-in-chief.
M o n t g o m e r y
Montreal, and falls at
1776. The British troops
evacuate Boston.
Moultrie de
Sullivan's Island.
DECLARA-
TION OF IN-
DEPENDENCE,
July 4.
Americans (Sulli-
van) defeated at
Flathush. Aug.
Battle of White
Plains.
Battle of Trenton,
Dec. 26-7.
1777. Arrival of Lafay-
ette.
Capture of Ticon
Great Britain.
1766. American Stamp
Act repealed. — New
ministry under the
Earl of Chatham.
1767. First war with
Hyder Ali in My-
sore.
1770. Lord N # r t h ,
prime minister.
1771. The Falkland
Islands ceded by
Spain to Great Bri-
tain.
1774. The Boston Port
Bill passed.
1774. Warren Hastings,
governor general ot
India.
revolutionary
1775. Lord North's
" conciliatory mea-
sures" rejected by
the colonies.
takes St. Johns and
Quebec.
1776. The city of Lon-
don remonstrates
against the American
war.
feats the English at
The British army
takes possession oi
New-York.
Hessians hired for
service in America.
dcroga by the British,
July 5.
1718-1815.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
139
1768
1769
770
1773
J 774
Genoa cciles Corsica to France.
Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon
Marriage of the dauphin with
Marie Antoinette.
Madame du Barri rules the
king.
L o u i s XVI .@
Marie AritohieUe^ queen :—
Maurepas, prime muii«ter.
N e c k e r , comptroller-gene-
ral.
Franklin in Pails.
The World, elsewhere.
772. Jo.-?e()h
II. with the
Emperor.s o
Russia and
Prussia, dis'
member Po
land, (livid
ing it be
tween them
selves.
Discipline of the Ottoman troops im-
proved by Baron de Tott.
1767. Spain :— Jesuits expelled.
India:— Hyder All resists the Eng-
lish.
17G8. War between Russia and the Ottoman
Empire.
1709. Pope Clement XIV.
The Russian army occupies VV&Jachia
and Moldavia.
1771. Sweden :—Gustavus Ill.^g
1772. First P a r t i t i o n o f P o 1 a n d .
1773. Ottoman Empire:— The Russians cross-
ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi
Hassan.
Pope Clement abolishes the order of
Jesuits.
1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British
governor-general.
Rusjiia: — Revolt of the Cossack Pugat-
schefl', calling himself Czar Peter.
Ottoman Empire:— Abdul Hamid.^g —
1775. Pope Pius VI.
Spain :— Able ministry of Florida Blan-
1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians.
East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-ge-
neral, imprisoned by his own council.
1777, Portugal ;— Maria, queen.
(40
THE world's progress.
[Period X. — 97 years.-^
1781
1782
1783
1784
1786
1787
Progress op Society, etc.
HerscheVs discovery of ilie
Georgimn Sidus.
Prussic acid oblaiueil in ;i
parale slate, by Scheele.
Air balloon of Montgolfier.
Fir.^t American vessel in
China.
Institution for the deaf and
dumb at Paris, by tiie Abbe
de I'Epee.
S'unday schools established in
England, by Robert Raikes.
Ilerscliel's Telescopes.
Stenography^ by Taylor.
Panoramas in London.
First spinjiing machine in
France.
Talma^ the celebrated trage-
dian.
United States.
Great Britain.
Battles of Bennington,
11, and S'.illwater.
Philadelphia taken by
lis. Haitle of German
ceives B u r g 0 y n e ' s
Articles of confederation,
adopted Nov. 1.3.
1778. Alliance \v\\h France.
Battle of Monmouth.
Washington victorious,. I line
28.
Arrival of the French
fleet under D'E'^taing.
Massacre of Wyoming.
Sivarniah taken by the
Engli.sh.
I77y. W a y n e recovers
Stoneiy Point.
Paul .Jones's Victory off
1780. JJattle near Camden:
i) e K a I b killed.
Trea--on of Arnokl.
1781. Battle of Covvpens, gain-
ed liy M organ.
S "u r render o f C o
t o NV n , Oct. 17.
1783. Treaty with Holland, by
.1. Adams, .lay, Frank
1 i n , and [.aureus.
178J. PEACE OF VERSA
INDEPENDENCE of
knowleiiged by Great Bri-
tain.
1781. New-York Chamber ol
Commerce founded.
178"). .John Adams, 1st
States of America to Great
Britain.
1786. Shay's insurrection in
Massachusetts.
1787. General Convention at
Philadelphia.
Federal Con-
stitution of the
United Slates, adopted.
1788. Cotton planted in Geor-
gia.
1783. George Wash-
ington, first Presi-
dent:
.lefferson, Ha-
milton, Knox, Ran-
dolph, and Jay, form
the cabinet.
1791. First United States Bank.
1792. Kentucky admitted
to the Union.
United States Mint esta-
blished.
Aug. 16; Brandywine, Sept.
the English, under Cornwal
town, Oct. 4.— Gates re-
surrender, Oct. 17.
1778. Capture of Pondicherry,
in India.
Scotland.
178'J. War with Hyder All in
India.
War with Holland.
r n w a 1 1 i s at Y o r k -
1781. Victory ofl' the Dogger-
bank.
ILLES :
the UNITED STATES ac-
1784. Pitt, the younger,
premier.
Peace with Tippoo Saib.
ambassador from the United
1786. Piit's Sinking Fund.
1783. The king insane.— Deatn
of Charles Edward, the last
pretender.
Trial of Warren Hast-
ings.
1792. Provision for the gradua
abolition of the slave trade.
I
1718-1815.]
THE world's progress.
141
Germany.
AT.Iiance with America.
1779 Scheme to invade England
from Normandy.
J78C
1781
1782
1783
Rochambeau sent
aid the Americans.
Necker resigns.
Defeat of De Gras.se in the
West Indies, by Rodney.
1778. War of the Bavarian
succession.— Bavaria seized
by Germany.
1779. Congre.ss and Peace of
Teschen.
The World, elsewhere.
Peace
1 e s .
of V e r s a i I
1787
179.
1792
La Perouse's voyage of disco-
very.
Financial difficulties — New
taxation : Colmine, Brienne,
and Necker, niini.sters suc-
cessively.
FRENCH REVOLUTION
begins. — Bastile taken and
razed, .luly 14. — L a f a y -
e 1 1 e , commander of the
national guards.— M i r a
beau, leading orator.
Flight of the king to Varen-
nes.— Lafayette resigns.
War with Germany: — The
France declared a
republic,
(iiroitdi fits' and Mountiiinis^lti
1782. Punishment of death
abolished.
The Pope visits the em-
peror, to dissuade him from
liostilities against the church,
1785. 2,000 religious houses
suppressed by the emperor.
178S. The emperor attempts
to control the Universities.
1790. Leopold II -W—
Congress of Reichenbach,
1791. Conference of Pilnitz.
1792.— Francis II .@—
French take Spires, Mentz,
and LoMgwy— Lafayette im-
prisoned'at"<>lmut/..
1780. Declaration of tht armed
neutrality — to protect neu-
tral flags from the right ol
search claimed by Britain.
1782. Italy :— Pontine mauhea
drained.
India;— Rise of Sindia—
Tippoo, Sultan.
1783. — alliance with the
French.
1780. Prussia — Frederic Wil-
liam II.
1787. Russia:— War with the
Porte.
1783. Spain :— Charles IV.
1789. Ottoman Empire:— Se-
lim II.
1790. Tuscany : — Ferdinand
III.
1792. Sweden :—Gustavus IV
1
142
THE world's progress.
[Period X. — 97 years
Progress op Society, etc.
Tom Paine, Alfieri, Italian
Fisher Ames. poet.
Hannah More,
Gainsboro' ,
Moreland.
Bognslatcski,
Krasiki, Po-
lish poets.
Gluck,
Haydn,
Mozart,
Albrechtsber-
(ren,
Beethoven.
ISOl
18u->i
Pestalozzi, system of elemen-
tary education.
Mun'go Parkas travels in
Africa, published.
Iron railways in England.
Polytechnic school in Paris.
First book/air in New- York.
United States.
First Locomotive Steam En-
gine vised on the Mertliyn
Tydvil road in Wales.
1793. Washington re-elected.
Neutrality in regard to
France.
Great Britain.
1793. First coalition against
France, directed by Eng-
land— all Europe, except
Sweden, Denmark, and Tur-
key.
1794. Commercial treaty with Englan.i, ^ ^ ,
Commencement British army defeated
of the navy—G fri- near Dunkirk.
gates built.
1795. War with Holland.
1796. Washington resigns.
1797. .1 o h n Adams, 2d
president.
Difficulties with France.
1798. Regular army organized,
Washington commander-in-
chief.
1799. Death of Washington.
Tennessee becomes
a State.
1800. Seat of government
transferred to Washington,
D. C.
1801. Thomas J e f f e r
son, 3d President.
Exports of United States,
.S93,OUO,000.
\8iy2. Ohio joins the Union
It has 76,000 inhabitants.
1803. Purchase of Louisi-
ana, for $ir,,ooo,ooo.
U. States frigate Philadel-
phia, taken by the Tripoli-
tans.
1804. Decatur recaptures
the Philadelphia.
Preble bombards Tri-
poli.
Burr kills Hamilton.
1805. JefTerson re-elected Pre-
sident : George Clin-
ton, of Neio- York, Vice-
President.
1798. Second coalition against
France. — Irish rebellion. —
Nelson's victory at
the Battle of the
Nile .
Wilberforce'a motion to
abolish the slave trade, lost,
87 to 83.
1800. Union of Eng-
land and Ireland.
—Malta taken.
1801. Battle of Alexandria.—
Pitt resigns, succeeded by
Addington.
1802. Peace of Amiens.
1803. Successful war in India,
1801. Pitt again premier.
1805. Nelson defeats the
French and Spanish fleets
off Trafalgar.
1718-1810.J
THE world's progress.
143
1793. First Coalition
against France.
1798
1799
The king and queen beheaded.
Reign of Terror.
Marat assassinated by Char-
lotte Corday.
Victories of P i c h e g r u and J o u r d a n —the allies
every where driven back.
Revolution of the Uth Thermi-
dor.
R o b e s p i e r e guillotined.
NAPOLEON BONA-
PARTE, commander of
the army ; (juells an insur
rection in Paris.
War in Italy.
Battle of Lodi.
Bonaparte's AustrianCampaig n— II o c h e
and M 0 r e a u ' s cele-
brated passage of the Rhine.
Peace of C a m p o F o r m i o
The World, elsewhere.
Bonaparte's expedition to
Egypt is defeated by Nelson
at Aboukir, Aug. 1.
The French enter Switzerland
under B e r n a d o 1 1 e and
Jourdan.— Return of Bona-
parte.— R evolution of
t li e 1 8 1 1 1 B r u ni a i r e
— B 0 n a p a r t e , first
consul.
Battle of IMarengo.
1798. Second Coalition against
France.
-M o r e a u ' 8 victory of
H o h e n 1 i n d e n .
Peace of I>unevile.
1805
Bonaparte elected president of
the Ita'Iian republic.
Peace of Amiens.
Legion of Honor instituted,
War with England.
Bank of France.
Duke D'Enghien shot.
Bonaparte crowned as NA
POLEON I., Emperor of
the French.
Marshals S o u 1 1 , M u r a t ,
Ney, &c. !
Austrian Campaign, B a tttle of Auster-
i 1 i t z .
Peace of ;Presburg.
Napoleon Protector of \\u-Cunfe(lf'ral inn of the Rhine.
1804. The emperor of Ger-
many assumes the title of
emperor of AUSTRIA.
1793. Second Partition of Po-
land by Russia and Prussia.
II a y t i independent re-
public, under T o u s s a i n l
L'Ouverture.
1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra-
cow.— K osciusko, ge-
neral-in-chief—Russians de-
feated {It Warsaw.
1795. Final partition
of Poland — extinction
of the kingdfUTi.
Batavian Republic :— Shi-
mel|)ennink.
1796. Russia ;— Paul I.
1797. Switzerland :— General
Revolution The French
hivade Berne — Helvetian
Republic.
Prussia :— Frederic Wil-
liam III.®
1798. India : -Marquis Welles-
ley, governor-general.
1799. Russians," under Su-
w a r r o w , defeated near
Milan.
1800. Armed neutrality of the
north.
Pope Pius VII.
Ionian Republic founded.
1801. Russia: Alexander.^
1802. Italian Republic— Bona-
parte president.
1803. India :— Great Mahratta
War.
1804. Russia ;— War with Per
sia.
144
THE world's progress.
[Peiiod X. — 97 years.-^
1806
Planet Juno discovered.
Lewis ^ Clark's expedition
to the Rocky Mountains.
1807 Fulton's first success-
ful TRIAL OP Steam-
boats.
1808
)810
General University establislied
by Napoleon, to superintend
national education.
Lithography invented.
In England : ; France :
Flax man, La Grange,
Westmacott, -Mange,
Chantrey, \Hauy,
sculptors. Biot^
B. St. Pierre,
poet.
First steamboat built in Eu-
rope.
American Board of Covi-
missioners for Foreign Mis-
sions, founded.
Steam carriages in England.
Gas used lor lighting the
streets o( London.
Safety lamp invented by Si
Humphrey Davy.
In England :
H. K. White,
Keats,
Reg. tleber,
Shelley,
Crabbe,
Sir W. Scott,
Byron,
Coleridge,
Lamb,
Montgomery,
Hogg.
France :
Mad. de Stael,
Mad. deGenlis.
Chateaubriand
Uuvier.
Melendez Val-
dez, Spanish
poet.
Bilderdyk,
Dutch.
German:
VV. SchlegeJ,
F Schlogel,
Uichter,
Kotzebue :
Weber and
Spohr, musi-
cal compo-
sers.
Russia:
jKaramsin,
jSomorokor,
pmitriev,
Kriiov,
1807. Embargo on all the
ports of llie United Slates.
Trial of Aaron Burr for
treason.
Slave trade abolished.
1809. James Madison,
4th President.
Embargo repealed ; the
non-intercourse act passed.
1811. Engagement between IBU George, Prince of Wales,
1806. Fourth Coalition against
France.
1807. Bill for the abolition of
the slave trade, passed.
1808. The English, under
W e 11 e s 1 e y , enter Spain
as allies.
1809. Fifth Coalition.
Walcheren expedition.
1810. War with Sweden.
Prince Regent, (the king be-
ing insane).
Population of Great Bri-
tain, 1:^,552,144.
the ' President ' and the
' Little Belt.'
Indians on the Wabash,
defeated by Gov. Harrison.
Population of the United
States, 7,239,yOJ.
812, War with Great Britain.
Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull.
Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British.
The C o n s t i t u t i 0 n c a {) t u r e s the G u e r •
r i e r e : i
(First check of British Lord Liverpool,
naval HUi)remacy.) | premier.
W o o I victorious at Queenstovvn, Oct. 12.
Cai)iain J o n e s , in the Wasp, captures the Frolic
Oct. 18.
The •' Uniteil States,"
The (Jon.stitution, Captain
Louisiana admitted into
the Union.
1SI."3. Perry's victory
on Ij a k e Erie.
Battle of the Thames:
Tecum.seii killed.
J814. City of Washington
burnt by the Bi/^'sh.
Captain Decatur, captures the
British frigate Macedonian.
Bainbridge, captures the Bri
li.sh frigate Java.
181.3. Sixth Coalition against
France — Prussia, Russia,
Sweden, Great Britain, and
Austria.
1814. Treaty of Chaumont be-
tween Austria, Prussia, Rus-
sia, and Great Britain.
Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3,
1815. Battle of New-Orleans ;
British defeated by General
Jackson, Jan. 8.
War against Algiers de-
c In red.
1815. Canely and Almora cap-
tured.
Wellington vie
lorious at Waterloo, June 18.
1718-1815.J
THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
145*
1806
France.
Victory of Jena over the Prussians.
Berlin decree.
War with Russia.
Battle of Friedland.— P e a c e
of Tilsit.
Invasion of Portu-
gal.
French in Spain defeated at
Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel-
lesley.
Battle of W a g r a m-
Napoleon marries Maria Lou-
ise.—C/Oritinental peace ex-
cept with Spain.
Birtli of the emperor's son;
created king of Rome.
Souit victorious in Spain —
takes JJadajos ; is defeated
by the English at Albuesa.
Rttssian Campaign.
Battles of Smolensko and Bo-
rodino.
Moscow entered by Napoleon's
army— and burr 3d by the
Russians.
Peace of Vienna.
M e 1 1 e r n i c h , minis-
Victories of L u- t z c n ,
Bautzen, and Dres-
den, over the allies.
B a 1 1 1 c 0 f L e i p s i c —
The allies enter Paris.
Napoleon abdicates,
and retires to Elba.
ri o u s e of Bourbon
restored:
L o u i s XVIII.
Bonaparte returns from Elba.
T he hundred il a y s .
Napoleon victorious at Tiisnv.
BATTLE OF WATERLOO.
Trie allies enter Paris.
Bonaparte banish-
ed to St Helena.
1812. Austria in alliance with
France against Russia.
1813. War of German inde-
pendence.
Austria joins the Coali-
tion.
Bonaparte driven to the
Rhine, loses his whole army.
1815. German League.
Congress of Vien-
n a .
The World, elsewhere.
180G. Holland:— Louis Napo-
leon, king.
Prussia at v^^ar with France
in alliance with Russia.
1807. Ottoman Empire : — Mus-
tapha IV.
1808. Spain :— Ferdinand Vll.
" Joseph Napt)leou.
Naples : — Murat.
Denmark :— Frederic VI.
Ottoman Empire :— Mali-
moud H.
1809. Sweden :— Charles XIII.
1810. South America:— VE-
NEZUELA declared inde-
pendent.
1811. NEW GRENADA de-
clared independent.
1812. Invasion of Russia
by Napoleon.— BURNING
OF MOSCOW.
K u t o s o f f pursues
the retreating ]<'rench.
Poland :— Diet of War-
saw : the Poles declared a
nation by Napoleon.
1813. South America:— Bo-
livar drives the Span-
iards from Caraccas
1814. Union of Holland and
Belgium. — Peace ol" Kiel,
Sweden, and Enj^land.
Union of Sweden ;mi I
Norway as two kingdoui-.
under one monarch.
1815. Netherlands :— Wi'diasn
he "Holy Al-
liance' '—Russia, Prus-
sia, and Austria.
146*
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
PERIOD XL— 35 years.^
IBU
Progress of Society, etc.
l.^tS
New corn law in F.ngland.
Polytechnic institution at Vi-
enna.
Manufactories introiluced into
Poland.
The family of Rothschilds
conies into notice at Prank-
fon.
Aboliiion of the slave trade by
the congress of Vienna.
Second United States Bank
chartered lor 20 years, capi-
tal .•t>'.J.3,(J00,(J00.
Public scJiools established
thruugliout llnssid.
Belzoiii poneiraies tlie sccoml
pyramid of Gheza.
AhuIUion of predial bunda^^e
in IJavariaand Wirtemberi;-.
FiTst passage of tlie Atlantic
; Rise of mechanic institutions
m England.
Ilierogli/pliics deciphp.rnd :—
Cham poll ion. ~^\v William
Herschel died.
lluskisstin's /Vee trade system
in England.
First inanufaetorii in E^iipt.
established by iVlehemei Ali.
Inland naxigalion of
United States : the trrcat
Erie Cantd opened.
Mai/- posts in Prnssia —
iSira/,'t, navigation on tlie
liJiine.
General financial 'panic in
England.
Vast increase of periodical
litprafure in England, France,
Gtrnnmy, America, &c.
''^-'jj Alexander Volta dies, disco-
verer of the Voltaic battenj.
United States.
Great Britain,
1823
1S16. United States Bank in-
corporated.
I n il i a n a admitted,
1317. J a in e s Monroe,
5th President.
Mississippi ad-
mitted.
IS18. Illinois admitted.
War with the Seminoles.
by steam, by the Savannah-
New- York to Liverpool.
1320. Maine admitted.
182L Monroe re-elected.
.Ali s 3 o u r i admitted.
rSiavery compromise.
1816. Bombardment of Algiers.
—The Dey compelled to
make peace and abolish
slavery.
IS 17. Lord Exmoutlfs expe-
dition to Algiers.
1820.-
I c o r g e IV.
1821. Lafayette's visit.
.Erie canal opened.
Protective tariff.
182."). .1. Q. Adams, 6th
President.
1823. Canning ministry.
The Ashantees in Africa
defeated.
1825. Commercial treaty with
Prussia.
1827. Treaty of London in
favor of Greece.
1828. Wellington ministry.-
Disturbances in Ireland.
THE world's progress.
147*
18.15-1850.
1118
Congress of Aix la Chapelle.
— France joins the " Holy
Alliance."
Death of Napoleon at St. He
ena.
Austria, &c.
1827
-C h a r 1 e f
Fleet sent to Algiers,
1821. Congress of monarchs
at Laybach. — Insurrection
in Moldavia and VValiachia.
— Alexander Ypsilanti de-
feated and carried prisoner
to Austria.
The World, elsewhere.
181G. Portugal ^JclmVI.^
in Brazi.
Union of Naples and
Sicily.
1817. Republic of the Ionian
Islands.
India :— The cholera com-
mences its ravages.
1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV.
(Bernadotte.)
India:— The Mahrafta
power completely over-
thrown, and the British suc-
ceeds.
1819. South America:— Re-
public of COLOMBIA:—
Bolivar, President.
1821. Ilayti :— B oyer, em-
peror.
South America :— PERU
and GUATEMALA inde
pendent.
IS-i-i. BRAZIL declared inde,
pendent.
Mexico :— Iturbide, em
peror.
Greek Revolu
lion.
Declaration of Indepen-
dence.
Massacre of Scio.
1823. Italy:— Leo XII., pope
1824. Death of Lord Byron at
Missolonghi.
1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a s
182G. —War with Persia.
Greece : — Missolonghi
taken by the Turks.
827. Treaty between Russia
and the Porte respecting
Greece.
Greece :— B a 1 1 1 e of
N a V a r i n o .
Portugal :— Maria de Glo-
ria, queen. ^^
—Rebellion in favor ol
Don Miguel as regent.
1828. War between Russia
and the Porte.
148*
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period XL — 35 years.-^
Progress of Society, etc.
In England :
Jeremy Ben
tliam^
Thomas Chal-
mers,
Thomas Dick,
W. Kirbij,
Hallam,
Lingard,
Wordsworlh,
Southey,
Camj)bell,
Moore,
Leigh Hunt,
Mrs. Hemans,
Bulwer,
" Barry Corn-
wall."
Russia :
Kuramsin,
JSomorokov,
Dmietriev,
Krilov.
U. 5
N. Webster,
Irviyig,
Cooper,
Flinty
Wirt,
Marshall,
France :
Cuvier.
Talma', trage
dian,
Segur,
La Place,
Beranger,
Lamar tine.
Germany :
jSpohr,
Mayerbeer,
Kotzebuc^
Gall,
^purzheim.
Sweden :
Tcgner,
Dahlyren.
Italy :
Rossini,
Paganiyii.
S. A.
Wheaton,
Kent,
iS'tory,
Gallatin,
Livingstoti,
Channing.
Liverpool and Manchester
Railroad opened.
The two Landers succeed in
tracing the Niger from Lake
Tchad to the ocean.
The first newspaper in Con-
stantinople.—The Fac:tory
Bill in England, limiting the
hours of labor for children.
Reform Bill in England:—
rJxtensio?i of Suffrage.
Trade ujiians in England,
France, Germany, Switzer-
land, «fcc.
Girard College, at Philadel-
phia, and the University of
New- York, commenced.
De Tocqiiecitles History of
Democracy in America.
Inquisition abolished in
tSpain.
Slavery abolished in the
British colonies.
Boston and Lowell Railroad
completed.
James Smithson, of London,
bequeathes .£100,000 to the
United States for the esta-
blishment of an Institution
^for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among
men.'^
The Luxor obelisk erected at
Paris.
United States.
Great Britain.
1829. General Jack-
son, 7th President of the
United States.
1830. Treaty between the
United States and the Porte.
1831. The king of the Nether
North Eastern Boundary, be
ia32. War with the Winneba-
goes and other Indian tribes.
—Cholera in New- York. —
Nullification in South Caro-
lina.—General Jackson's ce-
lebrated proclamation.
1833. General Jackson re-elect-
ed to the Presidency.
Removal of the Depo-
.sitcs of the United States
from tiie U. S Bank.
1834. Tlie President censured
by the Senate for removing
the Deposites.
1335. Great Fire in New- York.
1836. The national debt of the
United States being paid, the
surplus revenue is divided
among the States.
Treaty with Morocco.
1837. The independence of
Texas acknowledged.
Martin Van Buren
8th President.
1827. Treaty of London ir.
favor of Greece.
1828. The Wellington muiis-
try.— Disturbances in Ire-
land.
1829. Catholic emancipation.
Captain Ross' voyage to
discover a North West pas-
sage.
1830. -W i 11 i a m I V .^
Earl Grey, minister.
Difficulties with China.
laSl. Lord John R u s -
s e 1 ' s Reform Bill intro
duced.
Cholera first appears in
England.
lands makes his award on the
tween the United States and
the British provinces.
1832. Reform Bill passed.
1833. Captain Ross returna
from his voyage of disco-
very.
18.'}4. Sir Robert Peel,
Premier. — Difficulties in
Canada.
1837. — Victoria.
^
1815-1850.J
THIJ WORLD .S VllOGllEii^.
149*
1835
1836
A French fleet sent, lo Algiers,
Algicid lakeii.
Austria, &c.
T h I- e e 1) ;i y s ' R c v o -
I u t i (» 11 , July tl7. •J8. ami
Laiayettc, CDUiiiiMiuler oC ilie
Natuuial (iuard.
Charles X alidicai.es.
— L 0 u i s IMi i 1 i p J) c I .
(House or Orleans.)*^
Miuislrv of Marshal S o u 1 L .
Death of J.afayette.
Insurrection attempteil by
Loui.s Napoleon at Stras-
buig.
18;«. The Kin-
})eror of Rus-
sia visits the
Kinjieror of
Austria.
The Woiii.i), elsewhere.
-- 1'^ e 1 (1^1
nan.ll.#
1829. Italy :-I'ius Vlll., pope.
Algiers taken by the Frencli.
VENEZUELA independent, General
P a e z , Pre.'^ident.
IS;)0. J5EL(JIIJM revolis from Holland, and
is decla,red independent in August.
1830. Polish struggle f o r nation-
ality, begins November 19.
Brazil :— Revolution ; Don Pedro 11.^
1S3L I'.flgium :-Loopo 1 d I .W
Tim Pules vict(u-ious at Prayo.
Paly :— (Jreirory XVI,, pope.
Poland :— -Warsaw capitulates to Rus-
si;i.
1832. The kingdom of C.TIEECE foundod :
O t h o I .^
Poland:— I'he Insurirction crushed:
500U families sent to Siberia.
—University of \Varsaw abolished.
1833. Spain :-Isabella.f^
—Don Carlos claims the throne.
]*ortugal :— A constitutional monarchy.
lOirvpt :— jNIehemet Ali acknowledged by
the Sid'ian.
Mexico :— Santa Aima, President.
1831. Uuailruple alliance — England, France.
Spain, and Portugal, agamst Don Miguel
and Don Carlos.
18;35. The Plague in Egypt.
183G. Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts (he
constitution.
Texas:— Rattle of San .lacinto, Santa
Anna taken prisoner.
China :--A dtCK c to expel all British
and other barbarian merchants.
150*
THE wc;rl:d's progress.
[Poiud XI. — 35 years.-^
A..D. Progress of Society, etc.
S- F. B. Morse takes
out a patent for his K 1 e c -
tro- magnetic Tele-
graph, (invented 18.'J2 )
Suspension of specie payments
by the Baiika in the United
States, in May.
The Daguerreotype
invented in Paris,
Improvement of the condition
of the Jews in Russia.
An Antarctic Cutitinent disco
Penny postage system in Eng-
land.
Persecution of the Jews at
Damascus.
Wheat stone's Electric Tele-
graph patented in England,
United States.
The Crolon Aqueduct in New-
York completed.
Bain''s electro-magnetic Tele-
graph paten ted in London.
' Anti-rent ism ^ o.v^ached in
the Slate of New-York.
A great defection from the Ro-
rnish church, under the
preaching of Range, in Ger-
many.
Lord liosse's Tclescoj)e.
Gutta Percha in use.
Completion of the Thames
TunneL March 25.
The Planet Neptune, pre-
dicted by Le Verrier, dis-
covered by Dr. Galle, of
Berlin, Sept. 23.
1838. The Exploring Expedi-
tion sails.
183'j. Disturbances on th-j
"disputed linritorv," be-
tween Maine and New-
Brunswick.
vered by the United States
Exploring Expedition.
18U. W. II. Harrison,
9th Pre-'^ident.
He dies April 4, just one
month after his ijiaugura-
tion.
John Tyler, sue.
ceedshim,as lOih President.
Congress meets in extra
session. May 31.
Sub-Treasury Act re-
pealed, Aug. 9.
Bankrupt Act passed,
August 18.
1842. The Dorr Insurrection
in Rhode Island.
Treaty between the Uui
Great Britain.
183:). The British take posses*
sion of Ghuzne.
1840. The uniform Penny
Postage system esta.ilishcd
Marriage . f Queen Vic-
toria to Prince Albert ol
Saxe Cobourg.
War with Chir a, to en-
force the opium trade.
War in Syria : — Great
Britain taking part with
Austria and Turkey. Lord
P a I m e r s t o n ' s foreign
policy excites the ill-will ol
France.
1811. Tiie war with China
ended : !Ji;G,U00,UUO received
a^ a ransom for Canton
1844. Texas annexed to
the United Slates.
Anti-rent riots in New-
York.
1845. Treaty with China,
J a m'es K . Polk,
llth President.
1846. War with M e x i -
c o :
Hostilities commence on
the Rio Grande, April 24.
Battle of Palo Alto,
May 8.
Battle of Ilesaca do la
Palma, May 9.
ted States and England, settling
the north-eastern boundary.
Treaty of peace with
China.
1843. Great "Repeal"
agitatioi\ in Ireland.
The British gahi posses-
sion of Scinde.
1814. Daniel O'Connell's trial
and imprisonment— the sen*
teuce reversed by the House
of Lords.
1845. Sir John Franklin saila
in search of the north west
passage.
1815-1850.]
THE WOllLU'S PflOGHESS.
151^
1838
1810
Talleyrand dies.
Difficulty Willi Mexico : cap-
ture of San Juan d'Ulloa.
Prince Louia Napoleon at-
tempts a hostile descent on
the coast of France, near
Boulogne — is taken prisoner,
and imprisoned at Ham.
G u i z 0 t , minister for fo-
reign aflairs.
The remains of Napoleon
removed from St. Helena,
and deposited with great
honors at the Invalides, in
Paris.
Austria, «fec.
1812
1844
1846
The duke of Orleans, heir to
the throne, killed by a fall
from his carriage.
The Duke de Nemours ap-
pointed Regent, in the event
of the king's death.
Louis Napoleon escapes from
Ham, May 26.
1838. New
Treaty of
commerce
with Eng-
land, July 3.
Ferdinand
crowned at
Milan, Sep
tember 6.
The World, elsewhere.
1838. Mexico:— The Castle of San Juan
d'Ulloa taken by the French.
1839. Peace between France and Mexico.
China :— The Opium trade forbidden.
Turkey at war with Egvpt.
India :— Ghuzne taken by ti.c British.
1840. China : — Canton blockaded by the li^ng-
lish, to compel the renewal of the opium
trade.
Holland :— William I. abdicates :
William 11.^
Syria:— St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the
English, Austrians, and Turks
1841. China:— Canlon capitulates, ^6,000,000
paid in one week, as a ransom for the city.
Mexico : — Santa Arma enters the capi-
tal, and places himself at the head of the
government.
1812. India :— Insurrection in Affghanistan.
1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich
Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord
Geo. Paulet.
Greece .-—King Otho compelled to ac-
cept a coasiitution, Sept. 15.
The Society Islands seized by a French
squadron — restored by the government.
India :—Scinde annexed to the British
empire.
1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful
insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23.
Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; elected June 16.
Poland :— Cracow deprived of its inde^
pendence, Nov. 16.
152*
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period. XI. — o5 years. -
Progress of Society, etc.
United States.
181G. The Oregon Trea
lling the North- Western Bo
Commodore Sloat takes
possession of California.
July 6.
New Tariff bill passed,
establishing ad valorem du-
ties.
Battle of Monterey, Sep-
tember 23.
Tampico occupied, No-
vember 14.
1817. Battle of Buena Vista.
Feb. 'Z>.
JJattle of Sacramento,
Feb. 2G.
Vera Cruz surrenders,
March 29.
liattle of Cerro Gordo,
April IS.
Battle of CuntreraiJ, Au-
gust 20.
Armistice, Aug. 21.
Hostilities reueweil, Sep-
tember 7.
Battle of Molino del Key,
Sept. 8.
Battle of Chepultepec,
Sep. 12.
Mexico surren-
ders, S:U)t. 11.
1813. Treaty of Peace with
.>Iexic(), signed at Guada-
loupc Hidalgo, Feb. 22.
Great Britain.
t y with Great Britain, set-
undary, signed at London,
June 18.
18^17. Severe famine in Ire-
land. Large supplii^ u/
food sent from the United
States.
The Bogue forts in China
taken and destroyed, April
26.
The cultivation of the Tea plant in the United State.s,
commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro-
lina. I
Postal convention betw
Suspen.'iion Bridge at Nia-
gara Falls, opened July 29.
First deposit of Califor-
nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8.
Emigration from Europe to America during this year,
300,oyo.
1818. Civil war in Ireland,
John Mitchell, tried and
condemned to transporta-
tion, May 26.
een the United States and
Great Britain,
Habeas Corpus Act sus-
pended in Ireland, July 25.
Smith O'Brien arrested
and condemned, Aug. 5.
Hot urn of Ross's expo
dition, Nov.
J 815-1850.]
THE world's progress.
153*
Reform Banquets in Stras-
burg, Chartres, &c.
Michelet'3 Lectures interrupt-
ed by the ministers, Dec.
Abd-el-Kader captured, Dec.
22.
Debate on the Reform Bill,
Feb. 8.
Proposed Banquet at Paris,
abandoned, Feb '^l.
Revolution com-
menced, Feo. 22.
Barricades erected, Feb, 23.
Louis Philippe abdicates and
flies, Feb. 24.
Provisional government esta-
blished.
L a m a r t i n e , Provisional
President, Feb. 24.
French Republic proclaimed,
Feb. 2G.
Me-eting of the National As-
sembly, May 4.
Bloody Insurrection in Paris,
June 23-25.
Cavaignac, military dictator,
June 24.
Paris in a state of siege.
New Constitution adopted,
Nov. 4.
Louis Napoleon Bo-
naparte-, elected Pre-
sidt nt, Dec. 10.
Austria, «fec.
1847. Austria
lakes posses-
sion of Cja-
cow.
The World, elsewhere.
1847. Prussia :— Frederic William grants a
constitution, Feb. 8.
Ilayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2.
Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner
to France, Dec. 22,
1848. Sardinia :— Charles Albert protests
against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an
army of 25,000 men, Jan 10.
Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12.
Sardinia :— Charles Albert proclaims a
constitution, Feb. 8.
Bavaria :— Disturbances on account of
liOla Montes— the king abdicates in favor of
his son,
-Maximilian II.
- March 22.
Charle.s Albert
TheBanJella-
chich ap-
pointed gov-
ernor of
Hungary,
Oct. 3.
Insurrection at
Vienna, Oct.
G.
1848. The Em-
peror leaves
the city. The
Hungarian
army advan-
ces within 6
miles of Vi-
enna,Oct.U.
Windisch-
gratz ap-
pointed com-
mander of
the imperial
army.
enters Milan, March 23.
Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol-
stein, March 26.
Sicily declared independent, April 3,
Holland receives a constitution, April 17.
Poland :— Unsuccessful revolt at Cra-
cow, April 25.
Sicily :— The Duke of Genoa elected
king, July 10,
India : — Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16.
Armistice signed between Denmark,
Pru.'^sia and Sweden, Aug. 26.
India : — The British make an unsuc-
cessful attempt on Moultan.
Sicily :— Messina bombarded and taken,
Sept. 2.
Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Pr^
sident of the Defence Committee, and Dicta
tor, Oct.
154*
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period XI. — 35 years.-
K.-D.
Progress of Society, etc.
United States.
Great Britain.
1S49
A new planet discovered by
1819. Zachary Taylor,
1849. Moultan, in India, taken,
Gasjiaris, at Naples.
rith President.
Jan. 3.
Magnetic Telegraph lines in use in the United States in
1S4U, 10,(11)0 miles.
Rail Roads 6,000 "
Tuhnlar Bridge in Anglesea,
England.
Magnetic Clock, invented by
Dr. Locke^ at Cincinnati.
Emigration from Euroi)e to
America, during this year, at
the rate of JOLKJ a day.
1850
Great agitation on the Slavenj
1850. John C. Calhoun died at
1850. The war m Lahore fiiv
Question in tiie United
Washington.
ished, and th--, Punjaub an-
Statea Congress.
Attem|)ted invasion of
Cuba : — 600 adventurers un-
nexed to the British crown.
The Pekin Monitor^ a new
der liOpez, repulsed at ('ar-
paper, printed in China.
denas, May.
The Sukan of Turkey, grants
Death" of Gen. Taylor,
permission to the Jews to
build a temple (m Mount
July 9.
Millard Fillmore,
Zion."
13th President.
A University founded at Syd-
C a 1 i f o r n i a ad-
ney, New South Wales.
mitted, ;Mst State.
Texas bouiulnry settled,
by the payment of 10,000,000
Deaths in ia50 :
dollars to Texas.
U. S. A. ; EUROPE.
New- Mexico and Utah
A. Judson, Wordsworth,
S. M. Fuller, Jelfrey,
M L. Da V is. ^ Neander,
;Z3ch-okke,
:iJerzelius,
'Balzac.
admitted as Territories.
Bill for the arrest of
fugitive slaves passed by Con-
gress.
Slave trade in ihe District of
Columbia abolished.
A British fleet blockades
the ports of Greece, to en-
force the alleged claims o(
British subjects.
Sir Robert Peel dies
July 2.
Ilaynau. " the Austrian
butcher," chastised by ilio
draymen in London, Sept.
1815-1850.]
THE world's TROGRESS.
155'
FllANCE,
I860
Louis Philippe dins in Eng-
Jand.
Austria, &(
The World, elsewhere.
The Emperor
i-^nit-s a pru-
claniiUioii
asaih.sL (he
city.
Ko.ssuih with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27.
The Lnporial-
ists take po.^-
sc^.sionol'Vi-
eiina, Nov.
erdiiiand ab-
(Ucates. Dec.
2.
— F r a n c i s
J u s e p li I
1819. A new
Con.^titutioii
lirounilgated
March 4.
IJrescia taken
by llaynaii,
INIarch 30.
-M a z z i II i ' s proclamation,
The king prorogues the As-
Ronie :
Oct. 29.
Prussia :-
senibly, >iov. 9.
— The Hiir^dier Cuanl of Berlin refuse to
2ivc up their arms. The city in a state of
He-e, Nov. 12.
Rinwe ;— Count Ro.^si. thcPoj)e's prime-
minister, a:;.-^a'^\-inated. 'Nov. IG.
India:— (heat, battle near Ramnuggur,
Nov. 22.
Rome :— The Poj^e escapes in disguise,
Nov. 21.
Ilmurary declared independent, Dec.
1319. Iiulia':— Moidian taken by the British,
.Jan. 3.
Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany
flies. Provisional Government proclaimed,
Feb. 9.
Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9.
Sicily ;— A new Constitution conceded
by Na|)les, March 0.
Sardinia .-—(.'harles Albert defeated by
Radetsky, March 21— again totally defeated
at Novarra, Marcli 23,' he abdicates the
throne in favor of his mn,
Victor Lnin Intel. ^^
India: — The I'diijaub annexed to the
British Empire, aMarch 29.
Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April I.
Ru.ssia comes to the aid of Austria aiiainst Hungary, April
2G.
Rome : — The Frencli army arrives un-
iler the walls ol' Rome, Ajnal 29.
Haynau takes command of tlio Austrian army in Hungary,
June.
Rome surrenders to the French, July 2.
(Jaribaldi leaves the city, July 3.
Rome : — The government placed in the
hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3.
Gtirgey traitor -ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11.
Kossuth escapes into Turkey.
Veniee capitulates to Radeibky, Aug. 22.
IS50. Ronie :— The Pope returns, April.
Greece disputes (he claims of Great
Britain for losses of British subjects: is
forced to submit.
China : — The Emperor Tau-Kwang,
dies :
-Sze-hing
succeeds.
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
CHJEPLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN I WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS
ABBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near
the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one.
An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305.
The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was
in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elphin, Doion. The first in Scotland was
in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see
Bangor. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet
in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands
of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in
England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. The revenues of
193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,653,000.
These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry
VIII. 1539. See Monasteries.
ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in
later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance,
and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : —
1080
Of Henry IV. of Germany.
Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumamed
Thunder^ 1114
Of Albert of Saxony, .
Of Leetus V. of Poland, .
Of Uladislaus III. of Poland,
Of Baliol of Scotland, .
Of Otho of Hun<?ary, .
OfEric IX. of Denmark
OfEric XIII. of Sweden, .
Of Charles V. Emperor,
Of Christirra7)f Sweden, .
Of John Casimir of Poland, .
Of James II. of England, .
Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland,
OfPhilipV. of Spain, .
Of Victor of Sardmia, .
Of Charles of Naples, .
Of Stanislaus of Poland
Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802
Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes
emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804
Of Charles IV. of Spain, m favor of his
son, ... . March 19, 1808
ABELARD and HELOISE.
He again abdicates in favor of the Bo-
naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808
Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to
take the crown of Spam, . June I, 1808
O r the same (bv flying before the British
from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808
Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810
Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813
Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814
Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821
Of Pedro of Portugal, . . May 2, 1826
OfCharlesX. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830
Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831
Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving
the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834
Of William I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1840
Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager
and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840
Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. ^, 1848
Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March ^, 1848
Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria,
Dec. 2, 1848
Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia,
Aug. 1849
Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and
1142
1200
v:m
130(3
1303
14.39
1441
1556
1654
1669
1688
1704
17^
1730
1759
1795
misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118. when Helolse (a canon's daugh-
ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard. after suffering an ignominious in-
jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of
grief which never left his heart in 1142. HeloTse begged his body, and had
146 THE world's progress. [aoa
it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing
in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love,
and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French
Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up,
they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pfere La Chaise, in 1817.
ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation
conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His-
lory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ;
and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being
adsqiLe origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. The
word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally
applied to any original inhabitants.
ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe-
dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the
British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18,
1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au-
gust 1, 1798. See Nik.
ABRAHAM, Era of. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To
reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months.
ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread,
and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104.
St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti-
gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of
age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without
meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days
by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor-
mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Alhano. Gilbert Jackson,
of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind,
1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on
the sixteenth, 1789. — Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four
years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland^s Practical Journal. Ann
Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Stanordshire, supposed to have been
an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808.
At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived
two years without meat or drink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See
instances in HaUer^s Elementcs PhysiologicB ; Cornaro; Pricher^s Surgical
Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting.
ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine,
flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics.
They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho-
rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. —
Bossuet.
ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation,
which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old
style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days.
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and
125 days.
\('ADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and
the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls
of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato
first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378
B. C'-StanUy. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex-
andria, about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also
▲ch]
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
147
named as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; andJarckius
mentions 650, of which 26 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical
academy in France was established by Pfere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies
were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society
of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal
academies : —
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
1780.
American Philosophical Society, 1769.
Ancona, of the Caglinosi^ 1624.
Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes,
1703 ; Architecture, 1799.
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics,
1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712.
Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626.
Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682.
Brussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773.
Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750.
Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742.
Cortona, Antiquities, 1726.
Dublin, Arts, 1749 ; Science and Literature,
1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823.
Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754.
Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612.
Florence, Belles- Lettres, 1272; Bella Cms-
ca, 15^ ; Antiquities, 1807.
Geneva, Medical, 1715.
Genoa, Painting, «fcc. , 1751 : Sciences, 1783.
Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Histoi-v,
1652; Military, 1752.
Ilaerlem, the Sciences, 1760.
Lisbon, History, 1720 ; ScienceSj 1779.
London : its various Academies are de-
scribed through the volume.
Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma-
thematics added, 1758.
Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History,
1730 J Painting and the Arts, 1753.
Manheim, Sculpture, 1775.
Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 1726.
Milan, Architecture, 1380"; Sciences, 1719.
Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759.
Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ;
Sciences, 1695; Herculaneum, 175o.
New York, Literature and Philosophy,1814.*
Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682.
Padua, for Poetry, 1610; Sciences, 1792.
Palermo, Medical, 1645.
Paris, Sorbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu-
sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663;
Architecture, 1671; Surgery. 1731 ; Mili-
tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796.
Parma, the Innominati, 1550,
Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filir^ti, 1574.
Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732;
the School of Arts, 1764.
Portsmouth, Nav^l, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806.
Rome, Umoristi, 1611 ; Fantascici. 1625 :
Jnfecondi, 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadtf
1690; English, 1752.
Spain, Royal, 1713 ; Military, 1751.
Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles- Lettrea^
1753; Agriculture, 1781.
Toulon, Military, 1682.
Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778.
Turkey, Military School, 1775.
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720.
Venice, Medical, <fec., 1701.
Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780.
Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur-
gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810.
Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753.
Woolwich, Military, 1741.
Mantua, the Vigitanti, Sciences, 1704.
A.CCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and
without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century
that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after
Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in
Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by
other grammarians in the various languages.
ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names
are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achseus, the son of
Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the
iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achaei were descendants of Achseus,
and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera-
clidse drove them thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled the na-
tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, uEgira, jEgeum, Bura, Tri-
taja, Leontium, Rhynffi, Ceraunia; Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dymae, and Pharae.
Alliance with the Romans, . b. c. 201
Philopoemen defeated by Nabis, in a na«
val battle, . . . .194
Sparta joined to the league, . 191
Tne Achaeans overrun Messenia with
fire and sword, . . .182
The Romans enter Achaia, 166-
Metellus enters Greece, .147
The Achjean leaffue dissolved, . 146
Greece piibjected to Rome, and named
the prn>"i oof Achaia, . . 116
The Achaean league, . .B.C. 281
Fortress of Athenaeum built, . . 228
Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans,
and Lysiades killed, . . 226
Battle of Sallacia, . ." .222
The Social war begun, . . 220
The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEto-
lians, . . . . 219
Aratus poisoned at .^gium, . . 215
Battle of Mantinea ; Philopcemen deleats
the Spartan tyrant Mecnanidas, . 208
. ' Now extinct.
148 THE world's progress. [ad.
The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that
of the Achaean league; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance
to it in their confederacy.
ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and
the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere,
was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by
Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by
Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about
A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700.
Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook
Taylor, in 1714 ; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and
La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound.
ACRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192, after a
siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500
barons, and 300,000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 Chris-
tians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the murder
of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels.
Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Sy&-
ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable
siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by
the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore. Bonaparte relin-
quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to
the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832.
It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet
under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours,
the Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 184r/.
See Syria and Turkey.
ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and
accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Pans, in
Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2,000 years, was destroyed
in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of MycenaB was
marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high
towers, each at the distance of fifty feet. — Euripides.
ACTIUM, Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side,
and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate
of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cajsar; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c.
This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate
upon Caesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman
empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con-
queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair.
ACTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an-
cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to
have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng-
land, in 1662; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the-
atre at court. — Theat. Biog,
iCTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Far-
liawient. For a great period of years, the number of acts passed has been
annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between
the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443
repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr.
Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at
large and 225 to Ireland solely.
\DAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d
ADM J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
149
130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that
if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief
was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it
was not necessary to confess Christ. — Eusebius. This sect, with an addition
of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply,"
was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named
Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every
age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard,
again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they
spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon.
ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, since
the formation of the government: —
First Administration ;— 1789 to 1797 ;— 8 years.
George Washington,
John Adams,
Virginia,
Massachusetts,
Thomas Jefferson,
Edmund Randolph,
Timothy Pickering,
Alexander Hamilton,
Oliver Wolcott,
Henry Knox,
Timothy Pickering,
James M'Henry,
Samuel Os.^ood,
Timothy Pickering,
Joseph Habersham,
Edmund Randolph,
William Bradford,
Charles Lee,
April 30,1789
do. 1789
Appointed.
Sept '^"
President.
Vice President.
20,1789^
2, 1794 > Secretaries of State.
10, 1795 S
11, 1789 \ Secretaries of the
3, 1795 < Treasury.
12, 1789 ■)
2, 1795 } Secretaries of War.
Virginia,
do. .lan.
Pennsylvania, Dec.
New York, Sept
Connecticut, Feb
Massachusetts, Sept.
Pennsylvania, Jan.
Maryland, Jan. 27; 1796 \
Massachusetts, Sept. 26, 1789 'j
Pennsylvania, Nov. 7, 1791 > Post Masters Gen.
Georgia, Feb. 25, 1795 S
Virginia, Sept. 26, 1789 )
Pennsylvania, Jan. 27, 1794 > Attorneys General
Virginia, Dec. 10, 1795 \
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789.
Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791.
Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793.
Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795.
Second Administration;— 1797 to 1801 ;— 4 years.
John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President.
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President.
Appointed.
Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, {continued in office.') "*
John Marshall, Virginia^ May 13, 1800
Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, {continued in office.)
Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800
James M'Henry, Maryland, {continued in office.) 1
Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, IVfay 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War.
Roger Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 )
George Cabotj* Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secretaries of the
Benjamin Stoddart, Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy.
Joseph Habersham, Georgia, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen.
Charles Lee, Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney Oeneral.
Secretaries of State
Secretaries of the
Treasury.
Jonathan Dayton,
Theodore Sedgwick,
Thomas Jefferson,
Aaron Burr,
George Clinton,
James Madison,
Samuel Dexter,
Albert Gallatin,
Speakers of the House of Representatives,
New Jersey, 5th Congress,
Massachusetts, 6th do.
Third Administration ;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years.
:797.
Virginia,
New York,
New York,
March 4, 1801 President,
do! }Eo5( Vice Presidents.
Anpointed.
Virginia, March 5, 1801 Secretarjr of State.
Mass. {continued in office.) ) Secretaries of tlM
Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury.
• Mr. Cahot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established in 1798.
150
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[ ADM
Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 Secretary of War.
Benjamin Stoddart, Md. {continued in office.) i Secretaries of the
Robert Smith,* Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 J Navy.
Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (continued in office.) ( Post Masters Gc-
Gideon Granger, Connecticut Jan. 26,1892$ neral.
Levi Lincohi, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 J
John Breckenridge, Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 > Attorneys General.
Caesar A. Rodney, Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 >
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801.
Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803,
Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 9th do. 1805.
Joseph B. Varnum, Massachiisetts, 10th do. 1807.
James Madison,
George Clinton,
Elbridge Gerry,
Robert Smith,
James Monroe,
James Monroe, t
Albert Gallatin,
George W. Campbell,
Alexander J. Dallas,
William Eustis,
John Armstrong,
James Monroe,
William H. Crawford,
Paul Hamilton,
William Jones,
Benj. W. Crowninshield,
Gideon Granger,
Return J. Meigs,
Caesar A. Rodney,
William Pinkney,
Richard Rush,
Fourth Administration ;~1809 to 1817;— 8 yeiw.
Virginia, March 4, 1809 President.
New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) ) ^. ■p.^^i^,^,,
Mass. 1813; (died Nov. 23, 1814) \ ^^^® Presidents.
Appointed.
Maryland, March 6, 1809 )
Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 > Secretaries of Stata
Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 S
Pennsylvania, (continued in office.)
Tennessee,
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
New York,
Virginia,
Georgia,
South Carolina,
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
{ Secretaries of the
Treasury.
> Secretaries of War.
Joseph B. Varnum,
Henry Clay,
Henry Clay,
Langdon Cheves,
Henry Clay,
Feb. " 9, 1814 \
Oct. 6, 1814 \
March 7, 1809 \
Jan. 13, 1813 f
Sept. 27, 1814 (
March 2,1815)
March 7, 1809 ) „ » • r .r,
Jan. 12 i813fSecretanesof the
Dec. 19^1814^ ^avy.
Connecticut, (continued in office.) j Post Masters Ge-
Ohio, March 17, 1814 S neral.
Delaware, (continued in office.) )
Maiyland, Dec. 11, 1811 \ Attorneys General.
Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 )
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809.
Kentucky,
Kentucky, )
South Carolina, \
Kentucky,
12th
13th
14th
do.
do.
do.
1811.
\ 1812.
f 1814.
1815.
Fifth Administration:
James Monroe,
Danic ' D. Tompkins,
John Q. Adams,
William H. Crawford,
Isaac Shelby,:!:
John C. Calhoun,
Benj. W. Crowninshield,
Smith Thompson,
Samuel L. Southai*d,
Return J. Meigs,
John McLean,
Richard Rush,
WHliam Wirt,
-1817 to 1825 ; -8 years.
March 4, 1817 President,
do. 1817 Vice President.
Appointed.
March 5,1817 Secretary of State.
March 5, 1817 Secretary of Treaa
March 5, 1817 ^ « » • ^ «r
Dec. 16, 1817 \ Secretaries of War.
New York, ' ' "nov!* ^^^1818 i Secretaries of the
New Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823 > XNavy.
Ohio, (continued in office.) i Post Masters Ge-
do. Dec. 9, 1823 \ neral.
Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) / . „ ^ ,
Virginia, Dec. "^le, 1817 { Attorneys General.
Virginia,
New York,
Massachusetts,
Georgia,
Kentucky,
South Carolina,
Massachusetts, (continued in oMce.)
V. 30, '""
• Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield^ of Massachusetts.
Secretary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointments ; and
Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's admi-
•istration.
t James Monroe was recom missioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War.
I Isaac Shelby declined the appointment.
ADM ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
151
ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued.
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Kentucky, 15th Congress,
Virginia, 17th
Kentucky, 18th
Sixth Administkation;— 1825 to 1829 ;— 4 years.
Massachusetts, March 4, 1825
South Carolina,
Henry Clay,
Henry Cl^,
John W. Taylor,
Philip P. Barbour,
Heniy Clay,
do.
do.
1817.
5 1819.
^1820.
1821.
1823.
.John Q,. Adams,
John C. Calhoun,
President.
Vice President.
Henry Clay,
Richard Rush,
James Barbour,
Peter B. Porter,
Samuel L. Southard,
John McLean,
William Wirt,
John W. Taylor,
Andrew Stephenson,
Secretary of State.
Sec'y of the Treas'y
Secretaries of War.
do. 1825
Appointed.
Kentucky, March 8, 1825
Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825
Virginia, do. 1825 ?
New York, May 26, 1828 ^
New Jersey, (continued in office.) Sec'y of the Navy
Ohio, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen
Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney Generai.
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
New York, 19th Congress, 1827.
Virginia, 20th do. 1828.
Seventh Administration ;— 1829 to 1837 ;— 8 years.
Andrew Jackson,
John C. Calhoun,
Martin Van Buren,
Martin Van Buren,
Edward Livingston,
Louis McLane,
John Forsyth,
Samuel D. Ingham,
Louis McLane,
William J. Duane,
Roger B. Taney,
Levi Woodbury,
.Tohn H. Eaton,
Lewis Cass,
John Branch,
Levi Woodbury,
Mahlon Dickerson,
William T. Barry,
Amos Kendall,
John McP. Berrien,
Roger B. Taney,
Benjamin F. Butler,
Tennessee,
South Carolina,
New York,
New York,
Louisiana.
Delaware,
Georgia,
Pennsylvania,
Delaware,
Pennsylvania,
Maryland,
New Hampshire,
Tennessee,
Ohio,
North Carolina,
New Hampshire,
New .Jersey,
Kentucky,
Kentucky,
Georgia,
Maryland,
New York,
March 4, 1829 President.
^0- Jg^ j Vice Presidents.
Appointed.
March 6,1829^
1831 I
1833 1
1835 1
March 6, 18291
1831
1833
1833 1
1834 J
March 9,1829,
1831 <
March 9,1829;
1831
1834^
Secretaries of State,
Secretaries of the
Treasury.
Secretaries of War.
( Secretaries of the
Navy.
March 9, 1829 ( Post Masters Ge-
1835 \ neral.
March 9, 1829 i
1831 > Attorneys General.
1834 i
Sficakers of the House of Representatives.
Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829.
Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 22d do. 1831.
John B^ily Pennsylvania, 1835.
Eighth Administration;— 1837 to 1841-
Martin Van Buren,
Richard M. Johnson,
John Forsyth,
Levi Woodbury,
Joel R. 1 oinsett,
Mahlon Dickerson,
James K. Paulding,
Amos Kendall,
John M. Niles,
Benjamin F. Butler,
Felix Grundy,
Henry D. Gilpin,
James K. Polk,
Robert M. T. Hunter,
4 years.
New York, la^ l»resident.
Kentucky, 1837 Vice President.
Appointed.
Georgia, (continued in office.) Secretary of State.
New Hampshire, (continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasury.
South Carolina, 1837 J
New Jersey, (continued in office.) > Secretaries of War
New York, 1838 S
Kentucky, (continued in office.) ? Post Masters Qe-
Connecticut, 1840 < iieraL
New York, (continued in office.) )
Pennsylvania, > Attorneys General
Pennsylvania, 1839 )
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Tennessee, 1837.
Virginia, -1839.
l&H
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[adm
ADMINIl^rRATIONS (United States) continued.
Ninth Administration ;— 1841 to 1845 ;-
William H. Harrison, Ohio,
Died one month after inauguration, and
I years.
1841
John Tyler,
Samuel L. Southard,
Willie P. Mangum,
Virginia,
New Jersey,
North Carolina,
Daniel Webster,
Abel P. Upshur,
Thomas Ewing,
Walter Forward,
John C. Spencer,
John Bell,
John C. Spencer,
George E. Badger,
Abel P. Upshur,
David Henshaw,
Francis Granger,
Charles A. Wickliffe,
John J. Crittenden,
Hugh S. Legare,
John Nelson,
Appointed.
1841
841
841
John White,
John W. Jones,
Massachusetts,
Virginia,
Ohio,
Pennsylvania,
New York,
Tennessee,
New York,
North Carolina,
Virginia,
Massachusetts,
New York,
Kentucky,
Kentucky,
South Carolina
Maryland,
Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives.
Kentucky,
Virginia,
President
5 Vice President,
( became acting Pres.
^ Acting V. Pres. and
S Pres. Senate.
> Secretaries of Stato.
1 Secretaries of the
J Treasury.
Secretaries of War.
Secretaries of ths
Navy.
Post Masters Gen-
eral.
Attorneys GeneraL
James K. Polk.
George M. Dallas,
Tenth Administration ; — 1845 to 1849 ;■
Tennessee,
Pennsylvania,
years.
1845
1845
Appointed.
i84r
James Buchanan, Pennsylvania,
Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, 1845
William L. Marcy, New York, 1845
George Bancroft, Massachusetts, 1845 (
John Y. Mason, Virginia, . 1847 \
Cave Johnson, Tennessee, 1845
John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1845 )
Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, 1847 \
Speakeis of the House of Representatives.
John W. Davis, Indiana,
Robert C. Winthrop,
Massachusetts,
1841
1843
President.
Vice President.
Secretary of State.
Secretary of Treas.
Secretary of War.
Secretaries of the
Navy.
Post Master Gen.
Attorneys General.
1815.
1847.
Zachary Taylor,
Millard Fillmore.
Eleventh Administration
Louisiana,
John M. Clayton,
William E. Meredith,
William B Preston,
George W. Crawford,
Thomas Ewing,
Jacob Collamer,
Reverdy Johnson,
Howell Cobb,
New York,
Delaware,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia,
Georgia,
Ohio,
Vermont.
Maryland,
SpeaJter of the House
Georgia,
1—1849 to 1853 ;— 4 years.
1849 President.
1^9 Vice President.
Appointed.
1849 Secretary of State.
1849 Soc'y of Treasury.
1849 Sec'y of the Navy.
1849 Secretaiy of War.
1849 Sec'y of Interior.*
1849 Post Master Gen.
1849 Attorney General.
of Representatives.
1849.
ADMINISTRATIONS op ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from tlio
accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministej*s, or favor-
ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : —
kino henry viii. I Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . 1529
Bishop Fisherand Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 ( Cranmer .... 1532
* A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849.
Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis-
trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made bv the Presidents,
were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate
of the United States." Am. Almanac^ &c.
ADM J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
158
And lord Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 15M
Duke of Norfolk, carl of Surrey, and
bishop Gardiner . . . 1540
Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544
KINO EDWARD VI.
The earl of Hertford, conttnited
John, duke of NorthumberJand
ClUEEN MARY.
Bishop Gardiner
. 1552
. 1553
aUEEN ELIZABETH.
Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558
Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord
Burleigh; chief minister duriiis: al-
most the whole of this long reign
Earl of Leicester, a favorite . ' .1564
Earl of Essex . . . .1538
Lord Bur khurst . . .1601
KING JAMES, r.
Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset)
Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North-
ampton. .... 1608
Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches-
ter, aftencarrfs earl of Somerset . 1612
Sir George Villiers, created earl, niar-
ouess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615
KING CHARLES I.
Duke of Buckingham continued
Earl of Portland, archbishop Lauci . 1628
Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford,
lord Cottington . , . 1640
Earl of Essex .... 1640
Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641
[The civil war commenced, and all
went into confusion.]
KING CHARLES II.
Edward, earl of Clarendon- . . 1660
Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667
Lord Ashley, Lord Arlington, Sir T.
Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 1667
Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created
earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas
Osborne .... 1673
Sn- Thomas Osborne . . . 1674
Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl
afterwards marquess of Halifax, sir
William Temple . . . 1677
Duke of York, and his friends . 1682
KING JAMES IL
Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel,
sir George afterwards lord .Jeffries 1685
Lord .Teffnes, earl of Tyrconnel, lord
Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid-
dleton, visct, Preston . . 1687
KING WILLIAM III. AND Q,UEEN MARY II.
Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord
Godolphin, earl of Danby, after-
tcards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 1688
The earl of Sunderland, «fec, . . 1695
Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of
Halifax, earl of Pembroke, viscount
Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . . 1697
aUEEN ANNE,
Lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord
Pen)broke, duke of Buckingham
Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 17lik
Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes
of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170/
R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171'
Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth,
and Henry St. John, esq. afterwards
visct. Bolingbroke ; lord Harcourt . 171t
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 171<
KING GEORGE I.
Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury,
marquess of Wharton, earl of Or-
ford, duke of Marlborough, visct.
Townshend, &c. . . . 1714
Robert Waipole, esq. . . . 171t
James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 1713
Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . 1718
Robert Walnole, esq. afterwards sir
Robert ana earl of Orford . . 17?1
KING GEORGE II.
Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtt.i, lord
Bath, Mr. Sandys, «fcc. . . 174i
Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl
of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 174c!
Mr. Pelham. earl of Chesterfield, duke
of Bedford, &c. . . . 1746
Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob-
inson, Henry Fox, <fec., lord Anson 1754
Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt,
earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756
[Dismissed m April, 1757. Restored in
June, same year.]
William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple,
duke of Newcastle, ifec. . . 1757
KING GEORGE III.
Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke ^
of Bedford .... 1761
Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville,
sir Francis Dashwood, &c. . . 1762
Right hon, George Grenville, earl of
Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of
Bedford, &c 1763
Marquess of Rockingham, duke of
Grafton, earl of Shelbume, &c. July 1765
Duke of Grafton, hon. Chas. Towns-
hend, earl of C'hatham, &c. Aug. 1766
Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick,
lord North, &c. . . Dec. 1767
Lord North, lord Halifax, Sec. . . 1770
Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor-
mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St.
Germain, «fec. .... lTr'3
Marquess of Rockingham,right hon'ble
Charles James Fox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782
Earl of Shelbume, William Pitt, lord
Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782
Duke of Portland, lord North, Mr. Fox,
&c. (The Coalition Ministry. See
" Coalition.'') . April 5, 1783
Rt, hon. William Pitt, lord Gower,
lords Sidney, Carmartnen, andThur-
low, right hon. W. W. Grenville,
Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke
of Richmond, &c. . Dec. 27, 178J*
Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf-
ford, lord Hawkesbury, &c. . . 178«
Mr, Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds,
lord Camden, &c. . . . 179«
Mr. Pitt, lord Grrenville, earl of Chat-
ham, lord Loughborough, &c. . 1795*
154
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[ADR
Mr. Pitt, duke of Portland, lord Qren-
ville. Mr. Dundas, &c. . . 1795
Mr. Pitt, earl of Weatmorland, earl
of Chatham, lord Grenville, &c. . 1798
Right hon. Hennr Addington, duke of
Portland, lord Hawkesbury , lord Ho-
bart, lord Eldon, &c. . Mar. 17, 1801
Mr. Put, lord Melville, rt. hon. George
Canning, lord Ilarrowby, lord West-
morland, duke of Portland, Mr. Dun-
das, &c. . . May 12. 1804
Lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl
Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind-
ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon.
Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, <fec.
(See ''AUthe Talents^') Feb. 5. 1806
Duke of Portland, Mr. Canning, lord
Hawkesbury, earl Camden, right
hon. Spencer Perceval, &c. Mar. 25. 1807
Duke of Portland, earl BathursJ, lord
vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville
Gower, &c 1808
Mr. Perceval, earl of laverpool, mar-
quess Wellesley, viscount Palmers-
ton, Mr. Ryder, &c. . . Oct. 1809
REGENCY OF GEORGE, PRINCE OF WALES.
Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool,
&c. continued.
Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct.
Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr.
Ryder, earl of Harrowby , right hon.
Nich. Vansittart, <kc. June 8, 1812
KING GEORGE IV.
Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth,
Mr. Vansittart, «fec. continued.
Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount
Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur-
ges Bourne, «fec. . April 10, 1827
Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland,
right hon. William Huskisson, Mr.
Herries, dec. . . August 11, 1827
Duke of Wellington, right hon. Robert
Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel-
ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul-
bum, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c.
January 25, 1828
Duke of Wellmgton, earl of Aberdeen,
sir George Murray, lord Lowther, sir
Henry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. Huskis-
son, vise Palmerston. Mr. Grant, earl
of Dudley, &c. retirmg) May 30, ISa
KINO WILLIAM IV.
Duke of Wellington and his cabinet,
contintied.
Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Mel-
bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston,
marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol-
land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra-
ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, 1530
[Earl Grrey resigns May 9, but resumes
office May 18, 1832.]
Viscount Melbourne, viscount Althorp,
lord John Russel, viscts. Palmerston
and Duncannon, sir J, C. Hobhouse,
lord Howick, Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou-
lett Thomson, &c. . July 14, 18:^1
Viscount Melbourne's administration
dissolved : the duke of Wellington
takes the helm of state provisionally,
waiting the return of sir Robert Peel
from Italy . . Nov. 14, \^\
Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington,
lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen,
lord Ellenborough, lord Rosslyn,
lord Wharncliffe, sir George Murray,
Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Herries, Mr.
Goulburn, &c. . Dec. 15, 18:W
Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues
return to office . April 18, 1835
Q.UEEN VICTORIA.
Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi-
net, continued.
Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839
Sir Robert Peel receives the aueen's
commands to form a new adminis-
tration, May 8.
This cfommand is withdrawn, and lord
Melbourne and his friends are rein-
stated . . . May 10, 1839
Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellin^on,
earl of Aberdeen, earl of Hadding-
ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr.
Goulburn, <kc. . Aug. 7, 1841
Lord John Russell's administration
July 6, 1846
ADMIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed
by Henry HI. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edg:ar, Harold, and other kings, had
been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed
in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of
^reat distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward I.
in 1297. — Spelman; Rymer.
ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was
created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high
admirals oi districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy.
ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court
for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs.
ADRIANOPLE, Battle of, which got Constuntine the empire, was fought July
8, A.D. 323. Adrianople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1860 ;
and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire till the capture of
Constantinople in 1463. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the
Bultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was bom here in 1430.—
ADVj DICTIONARY OP DATES. 155
Priestley. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was
restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See TWkey.
ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea
was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married
the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state
barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state,
and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for
the first time for centuries, in 1797.
ADULTERY, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with
the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx. 10. This law
was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly,
because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal
of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged
to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calmet. Lycurgus
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans
tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ;
the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it,
and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil-
dren.— Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty 'of adultery
were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England
the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil
action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield.
ADULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress,
and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. —
Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished
by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping
her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without
distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stouoe,
The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished
capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is
no record of this law talking effect. In New England a law was ordained
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man
were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662, — Hardie. At present
this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress
of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they
usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe.
ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of
the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest
Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 80th November), before or after. Advent was
instituted. by the council of Tours, in the sixth century.
ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of
merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension
of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296.
This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign
of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation
in 1564. — Anderson.
ADVERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they
were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century, A penalty
of 50L was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. H. 1764.
•^Statutes. TlKi advertisement duty w^as formerly charged according to the
number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 35. 6^., and in Ireland
at 2s. M. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England
to Is. 6/i., and in Ireland to Is. eacli, bv statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833.
156 THE world's progress. r APF
^IBILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There were three degrees
of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices
of the peace. The plebeian sediles presided over the more minute aSairs of
the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all
the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro.
.ENIGMA. The origin of the senigma is doubtftil : Gale thinks that the Jews
borrowed their senignaatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The
philosophy of the Druids was altogether senigmatical. In Nero's time the
Komans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing
truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is
an elegant specimen of the senigma : —
Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ;
Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet.
.^OLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher. 1653 ;
but Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his
time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story
of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night,
was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch.
AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has
been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The
ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well
as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that
hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The
true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont-
golfier, 1782.— See Balloon.
iESOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor
of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 566 b.c. JEsop's
Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits
both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch.
MTOLIA. This country was named after ^Etolus of Elis, who, having acci-
dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos. left the Peloponnesus,
and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of
Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a con-
sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achaeans, to whom
they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies.
They were conquered by the Romans imder Fulvius.
Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other
cities, and destroy with fire all the
country they invade . B.C. 201
They next invite the kings of Macedon,
Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with
them against the Romans . . 195
They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Deme-
trias in Thessaly . . .194
Their defeat near Thermopylae . . 193
They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192
Made a province of Rome . . 146
The ^toliaQS begin to ravage the Pelo-
ponnesus ... B.C. 282
They dispute the passage of the Mace-
donians at Thermopylae . . 223
Acamania ceded to Philip as the price
of peace .... 218
Battle of Lamia; the iEtolians, com-
manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by
Philip of Macedon . . .214
With the assistance of allies, they seize
Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212
They put to the sword the people of
AFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was
prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every ag^e.
Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Levitt-
cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain
near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in
1603. AH mannages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are
declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1835.
aorJ dictionary of dates. 16?
AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath
in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered
and modified December 1721.
AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in
India, January 6, 1842. — See India.
AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient
world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It
was conquered by Belisarius in a.d. 653 et seq. In the seventh century, about
637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend-
ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great part of the present popu-
lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among
the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men-
tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made
his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50,
1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died
of shot- wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at
Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament
voted 61,000Z., consisting of the Albert^ Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships,
sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the
Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having
ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi-
tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard-
ships, Oct. 17.
AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ-
ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A
charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was
created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662; and another formed by let-
ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre-
sent company, 23 Geo. 11. 1749. See Slave Trade.
AGE: Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was
the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as
generation. The interval since the first formation of man has been divided
into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but
a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the
order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance,
would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age.
Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians :
by some the space of time commencing from Constantino, and ending with
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called
the middle-age ; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of
the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of
nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to
Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year.
AGINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by
Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken
prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen,
and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain
were the dukes of Alen9on, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one
marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415.
— Goldsmith.
AGRA, Fortress of, termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war
with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct, 17, 1803. This was once the
158 THF world's progress. I ALB
most splendid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent
ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his
palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con-
tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Mau-
soleums.
AGRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro-
man people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the
acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain
the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribune Tibe-
rius Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of
Rome imder Julius Csesar. — Livy ; Vossius.
AGRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im-
mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was,
perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri-
culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it
was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians,
and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor.
Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27.
AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade
the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority
upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now
flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public
there since 1814.
AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the
first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov-
ered by Torricelli, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pas-
cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have
illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi-
ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others,
the air-gun by Guter of Nurcmburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by
Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle
in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London,
about 1756. See Balloon.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Pbace of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa*^
between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt^, but
retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or
celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary,
Spain, and Grenoa. Bv this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in
1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713,
of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in
1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the
part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct.
7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia,
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha-
nelle, and a convention signed, October 9, 1818. The sum then due from
France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs.
ALABAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included in
the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi ter-
ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population in
1810 was less than 10 000 ; in 1816, 29.683 ; in 1820, 127,901 ; in 1830,
308,997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in
1840 amounted to S12 854,694 ; imports, to S574,651
ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 b.c, and called Lon-ga, because the city
extended along the hill Albanvs. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and was
ALB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159
governed by a race of kings, the descendants of^neas. When Amulius
dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a
life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal,
thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however,
frustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of
twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring tc
be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants
were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by
Faustulus, the kind's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and
called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was sumamed
JjiL'pa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled
by a she-wolf At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of
Ilia and Numitor, 754 b.c, and the next year founded Rome. — Varro.
CLEAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once
the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Cassar was
the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban,
who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf-
fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled
the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse-
cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was
erected here to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's
was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552.
ALBAN'S, ST., Battles of. The first, between the houses of York and Lan-
caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Heniy VI.,
of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered
no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists
under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen
Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated army
perished ; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461.
ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in
1623, and by them named Beaverwyck ; capitulated to the English in 1664,
and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and
Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 :
in 1830, 24.238 ; in 1840, 33,721.
ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan-
guedoc, and at Toulouse; they opposed the disciples of the Church of
Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon
de Montfort commanded against them, and at Beziferes he and the pope's
legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 160 of the
Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded
the chi«f people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other
women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000
men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Weddenses.
ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by
Julius Caesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion
of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about
400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots,
Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun-
try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the
Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a
mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See
Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir
Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in
1792.
A.LBUERA, Battle of, between the French, commanded by marshal Soult.
i60 THE world's progress. [ ALE
and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord
Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement,
the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant
achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men
previously to their retreat.
ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which eflfected the
transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a
universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be
had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood : yet
few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after
Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the
flrst who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it
off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had
this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 7 The Arabians
are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by
Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thin^ else
but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus,
about A.D. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all
kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rymer^s
F(zd, Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments
in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow-
der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain
of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ;
but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783.
ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet :
it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans
believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin.
It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras,
a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing
this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes-
torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God
sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610.
— See Koran, Mahometism, Mecca, &c.
ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and
among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as
distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given
them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro-
vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes
were settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor-
mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi-
cation, yet meant the same thing, Henry III, may be said to have given
its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the
United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor.
ALE AND WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for-
mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke^s
Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as-
cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife
of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre-
paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. —
Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes-
sex. Booths were set up in England a,d. 728, when laws were passed for
their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale
and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the i)resent, 13 Charles
n., 1660, See Beer, Wiiy..
algJ dictionary of dates. 161
AXEMANNI, OR All Men, (i. e. men of all nations,) a body of Suevi, defeated
by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of this warlike people are
said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at the
head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and
Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon.
ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem-
ber 12, 323 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation
was considered to be 5602 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse-
quence, the year 1 a. d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to
the year 284 a. d., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a. d.),
which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be-
came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, t,}hich see. The date is
reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and
after that time by subtracting 5492.
ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by
Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. ; taken by Cicsar, 47 b. c, and the library of
the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered
by the Saracens, when the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was
totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for
six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph
Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures
of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the
Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas-
sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable
battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by
the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by
them, Sept, 23, same year. For late events, see Si/ria and Turkey.
ALEXANDRIA, B attlk of, between the French, imder Menou, who made the at-
tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about
15,000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The
British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded.
ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by
Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him. Alexandrines, about a. d.
1164. — Nouv. Did: Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well-
known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is haj)i)ily exemplified : —
" A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
Tha» like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long."
ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely
known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said
to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and
into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra-
ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym-
bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into
general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the
doctrine of fiuxions, and the new analysis, 1668.
ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province,
44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the
Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he
seized the government, a. d. 1516; but it afterwards fell to^the lot of Tur-
key.— Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most
powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet
and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was
reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures
with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow-
ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1776,
t62 THE world's progress. [ ALM
1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth,
Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol-
ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and
Duperr^, after some severe conflicts, July 6, 1830, when the dey was deposed,
and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry
announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834.
Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which
the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836.
General Damremont attacked Constantina {nvhich see)^ Oct. 13, 1837;" since
when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have
taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 22,
1847. See Morocco.
ALI, Sect op. Founded by a famous Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma-
homet, (having married his daughter Fatima,) about a. d. 632. Ali was
called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians
follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho-
metans adhere- to that of Abubcker and Omar. It is worthy of remark,
that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and
Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion,
and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the '• cut-
ting swords of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos-
tor s family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease.
Ali was assassinated in 660.
ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When
they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if
they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or
handicraft by retail, 1483.
ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows,
in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints
and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned.
The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the
year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very
remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a
great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were
connected with popular feeling or tradition.
ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest
instances, of which Blair gives Psalm Ixxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen-
ser's Faerie Queene is an allegory throughout ; Addison, in his Spectator,
abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per-
fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich in allegory.
ALLIANCES, Treaties of, between the high European Powers : See Coalition,
Treaties, &c.
Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631
Alliance of Vienna . May 27, 1657
Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28, 1668
Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683
Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689
Alliance, the Hague . Jan. 4, 1717
Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718
Alliance of Vienna . March 16, 1731
Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756
Germanic Alliance . July 23, 1785
Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 1795
Alliance of Petersburg . April 8, 1805
Austrian Alliance ." March 14. 1812
Alliance of Sweden . March 24 /312
Alliance of Toplitz . Sept. 9, IS 13
Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, ISlf
\LMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen-
dars were anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri-
tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs.
Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the
style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were :
Poor Robin's Almamx
. 1C52
Lady's Diary
. . 1705
Moore's Almanac
. 1713
Season on the Seasons
. . 1735
Gentleman's Diary
. 1741
Nautical Almanac .
. . 1767
Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's,
Philadelphia) . . . . 1733
ALUJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 163
ALMANACS, continued.
Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox-
f«>rd 1380
One in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460
First printed one, published at Uuda . 1472
First printed in England, by Richard
Pynson .... 1497
Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533
Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . ^ 644
Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold.
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until
1790, in virtue of letters patent from James L, granting the privilege to this
company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was
abolished in England, 1834.
ALMEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com-
manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was
defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas-
sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route
of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation.
ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and
wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though
this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the
Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks avpha, and
abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived
from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought
the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol-
lowing;—
A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, o, n, p, :s, T, r.
Those letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char-
acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the
Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented
the double characters, 0, X, *, H, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simonides added Z,
**■, H, n, about 489 b. c. — Arujidelian Marbles. When the E was introduced
is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters
till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small
letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets
of the different nations contain the following number of letters : —
English .
French
Italian
Spanish „
ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com-
mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, sumamed the
Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000
crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface,
written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1262.
ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti-
tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks
the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero-
dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135 ;
and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar
in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed
churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup-
ported their use.
ALtTM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300 ;
it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 ; was brought to perfection in England, in
26
German .
. 26
Greek .
. 24
Turkish .
. 33
23
Sclavonic
. 27
Hebrew
. . 22
Sanscrit
. 50
20
Russian .
. 41
Arabic
. 28
and
27
Latin .
. 22
Persian
. . 32
Chinese
. 214
164 THE world's progress. [ame
1608 ; was discovered in Ireland, in 1767 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum
is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and
to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphu-
ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but it is usually obtained
by means of ore called alum slate.
AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru,
Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com-
panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and
gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called
Maranon.
AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend-
ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having
made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their
enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under-
went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female
state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri-
mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, ;hey, at stated
times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors, — Qumtus Curtms.
They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con-
stantly employed in wars •, and that they might throw the javelin with more
force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the
Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the
Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with
him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior ; three hundred
females were in her train. — Herodotus.
AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to
another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun-
tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others,
they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas-
sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a
lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their
protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas-
sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa-
dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them
to be imprisoned three months and the other fined. May 12, 1780. — Phillips.
AMBER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a
medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 800 b. c.
Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of
the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails
among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer-
ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king-
dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in
favor of each opinion.
AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself In that language it means
true^ faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im-
plies, 5^ be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally
used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer.
AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first
an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the
offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped
off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into
court, and was obliged to praypardon of God, the king, and the country. Death
or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for
making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party.
AMM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 165
AMERICA : See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno-
ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo-
ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands.
This great navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east-
ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci ( Americus Vespucius) in 1498 j
and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named.
Newfoundland, the first British colony
in this quarter of the world, discover-
ed by Cabot, and by him called
Prima Vista. .... 1497
Virginia, the first English settlement
on the main land . . . 1607
New England, the second, by the Ply-
mouth company . . . 1621
New York, settled by the Dutch . . 1614
[For other occurrences, see Tabular
Views— United States. See also
separate states, Maine, &c.
AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast
portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. Wlien
they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called
Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but ther were soon
subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The
cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be
a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted
its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence
in 1810; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the
people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending
chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke
of Spain for ever.* Its independence was recognized first by the United
States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, etseq.;
and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Colonibia, Lima, Peru, &c.
AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of
776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This
did not include authors of mere pamphlets, which would have swelled the
number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very
moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo-
logy, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57; History and Biography, 80 ; Politics
and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are
repeated.]
AMETHYSTS. When this stone w^as first prized is not known ; it was the ninth
in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name
Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according
to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water.
One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia-
mond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum.
AmethystsLVvcre discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1756. — Burns.
AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain ; the
preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and
M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive
^ treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for
England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Scliiiumelpen-
ninck for Holland.
AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot ; they invaded tlic
land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated
* Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spaniards while pursxiing their 'conquests, records
many instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In .Tamaica, he says"^ they hanged the unre-
•»isting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them
hrow the Indian' infants to their doss for food! "I have heard them," says Las (Jasas, "borrcw
'he limb of a human boitiir to feed their tio'j;s, and have seen them the next day return a quarter tit
)noth«'r victim to the len'lor'"'
166 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ ANA
by Jephthah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul,
with an intention to pat out the right eye of all those they subdued, but
Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van-
quished; and Antiochus the Great tookRabboath their capital, and destroyed
all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus.
AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by
Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul-
sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends :
having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with
two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays.
AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for
the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council,
which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities
of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process
of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons,
and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty.
— Suidas.
AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar
and Curio : the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in
full senate " Omnium mulierum virum, et omnium virorum mulierem" In the
Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi-
bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one
of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built
A. D. 79 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi-
theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes.
AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its
building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was
built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world,
in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that
time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is,
for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel
in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince
invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were
admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was
restored in November, 1813. See Holland.
AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The
Egyptians had a great variety ; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians.
Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the
passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny.
Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood
of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion
and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences —
witness the anodyne necklace, &xi. The pope and Catholic clergy make an(^
sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe.
ANA BAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England
before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi-
asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap-
tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existing
mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv-
. ance of the devil that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in
spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster
they called Mount Zfon and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the
king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led thorn to the maddest practices, and
ANr>] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 167
they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was
taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The
anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the
not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the
rei)resentatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689.
ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain,
named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The
odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round
of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked hy a grape stone in his
eighty- llfth year. — Stanlei/s Lives of the Poets.
ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary^ ,
the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our
Saviour. " Q,uid est Veritas?'^ we have this admirable anagram, '^ Est vir qui
attest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in
the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — Uenault.
/^ATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana-
thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We
bave a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Jos,hua vi. 17).
Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. Such ecclesias-
tical denunciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza-
beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica-
tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic
countries to this day. — Ashe.
ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso-
phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of
medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero-
philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy : they were the first
to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to
brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living
criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied
with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodies
of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical
plates were designed by Vesalius, about a.d. 1538. The discoveries of
Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680.
— fVeind's History of Physic.
ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many
of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus-
terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun-
ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept-
able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi-
nal. The order first arose in the fourth century.
ANCHORS FOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the
Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the
Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The
anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will
weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost .6450. — Phillips.
ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in-
vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind
to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds.
ANGEIJC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a. d. 456. The
Angdici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople,
1191 The AmrcUccc. an -^rder of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa
Ton Hi, A.D 1534.
168 THE world's progress. [ant
ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some
will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before
all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cavers
HisL Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re-
cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies.
ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing
four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. ^d. in the reign of Henry VI., and
at IO5. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold
coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands
of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Wood.
ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made
to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible,
as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the
Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book
printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in
1653.
ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception vras introduced oy father Hehl, at
Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had
its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a fcAv years afterwards.
It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa-
thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the
patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features
of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose
eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina-
tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor-
tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn.
ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil-
lage near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose population joined the first Saxon
freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs,
Uffa, assumed the title of king, a, d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See
Britain.
ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews,
Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first
notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr.
Burnet.
ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and
abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of
our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See
**rti. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added "in the
, car of our Lord " to his reign, in 879.
.% ['ARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north
or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and
64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French
and American Exploring Expeditions, under D'Urville and Wilkes, respec-
tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as
the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was
coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy,
fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the
year 1830.
ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of
people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood,
reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world
1482. Burnet lias supposed that the first human pair might hav(^ left. at. the
I.
10 V.
. 2,560
IX. .
. 655,360 XIII.
II.
. 40 VI. .
. 10,240
X.
. 2,621,440 XIV.
III. .
. 160 VII. .
. 40,960
XI. .
10,485,760 XV.
IV.
640 VIII.
163,&10
XII.
. 41,943,(H0 XVI.
ant] dictionary of dates. 169
end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing
them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would
rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable
of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and
then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu-
ries that preceded the Flood : —
. 167,142,160
671,088,640
2,684,354,460
10,737,418,2^»
This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen,
by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest
estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions.
ANTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. —
Lenglet. They were introduced into tlie church service in 386. — Baker.
Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose
into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches
in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565.
ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the
world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by
Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus.
Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of
other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea
Islands, &c.
ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients
to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo-
men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv, 30, and in
eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes
types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to
its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi-
cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle.
We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro-
cesses, about 1410. — Priestley.
ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538.
The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold
that crimes are not crimes when coniniittcd by them, that their own good
works are of no eft'ect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for
sin, and other equally absurd doctrines.
ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b.c. In one
day, 100,000" of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once
the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris-
tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers
attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation
5492 years b. c.
ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti-
podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of
pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain-
ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east
of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes
Island. — Brookes.
ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc-
tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption
of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have
existed in Ireland 700 years b. r. ; but this" has very little pretensions to
170 THE world's progress. [apo
credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and
others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for
a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from
favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1761 it re-
ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its
discoveries, (fee, under the title of Archtsologia, in 1770. The Society ot
Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780.
ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New-York,
an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer
estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846.
See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them
from prison, Jan. 27, 1847.
ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been
the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the
second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it
was adopted by Laelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Arians, Socini-
ans, and Unitarians.
ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built
in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma,
in 1685. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars
caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The
remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street,
was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, whicli
he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war
between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu-
tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the
Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel,
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief,
Oct. 27, 1830. General Chass^ surrendered the citadel to the French after
a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium.
APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about
A. D. 95. — IrencEus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic,
and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many
churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the
sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by
Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from
the time of Justin Martvr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in
A. D. 139.
APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are
neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history
of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon,
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged
by the council of Trent, held in 1645, et seq. — Aske.
A POLLIN ARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who
taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his
flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent
down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel ;
that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c.
Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378.
APOLLO, Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music,
poetry, and eloquence, had teniples and statue^ erected to him in almost
every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid
temple was at Delphi, built 1203 b. c. — See Delphi His temple at Daphnae,
] DICTIONARY OF DATES. I7l
built 434 B. c, during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in a. d.
862, and the Christians accused of the crime. — LengleL
APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the
Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while
after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship
was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the
Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of
England at the period of the reformation, in 1534.
APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the
second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d.
300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled
hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit-
ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the churck of
Rome, and predicting its downfall.
APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they
raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the
East were the lirst who paid divine honors to their great men, and the
Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and
humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate.— JBr<?r^<^w?i.
This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus-
tus, in favor of Julius Caesar, b. c. 13. — Tilkmont.
APPEAL OP MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt
or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have
been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed
his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant
(the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped,
April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the
statute book, 59 George III., 1819.
APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early
business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they
valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at
the price appraised. 1282.
APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation,
but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having
introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham.
AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by
Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the
sacrament, and used nothing but water.
AQUEDUCTS." Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct,
which was therefore called the Appiaii-way, about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of
every kind w^ere among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some
remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and
beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen-
dous aqueduct on the Ellesracre canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and
126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805.
\QUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of
England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a
principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke
of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this
duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI.
ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians
made no figure in history till a.d. 622. when, under the new name of Sara-
172 THE world's progress. [ AEi
cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro-
phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley.
ARBELA, Battle op. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the
Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b. (;.
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 hov^Q.—Arrian.
The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon,
which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster-
ling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed
to load 20,000 mules and 6,000 camels. — Plutarch.
ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them-
selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in their
manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley
surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as
being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery
they honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose
history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory,
although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of
other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by (Eno-
trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards
called Magna Grcccia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem.
ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha-
nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly
coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into
England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but
soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can-
terbury, A. D. 696.
ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England,
and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea-
con, who attended on the bishop, without any powpr ; but since the council
of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest,
though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to
A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity : an
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532.
ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau-
dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was
offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu-
nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the
earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded
by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by
Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which
was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and
Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town.
Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word.
A.RCHERY IN England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha
rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bow?
of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed
the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England
in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy,
Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range of
the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it
is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the
houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich-
ard II. 1397. — Stowe. The citizens of London were formed into companiet
of archers in the reign of Edward HI. : they wen^ formed into a corporate
AJKGJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. ITS
body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry Mil. 1638.
— Northouk's History of London.
ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the
best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature
in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantino
were magnificent,
ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b.c. Their
King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials^
for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. c. The art
passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came
into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged
during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the
ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches
and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from
the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not
fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603.
ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive goverrk
ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con-
tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this
dignity, 1070 b. c.
ARCOLA, Battle of, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the
Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of
this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the
loss on the part of the Austrians of 12 000 men, in killed, wounded, and
prisoners, four fl.ags, and eighteen guns.
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and
some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first
Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576.
Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a
number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted
to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent
and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan,
Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., ^qq- North- West Passage.
AREOPAGIT^. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be-
cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c.
— Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areos pages, the
Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur-
der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever
causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine
speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg-
ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions.
ARGENT ARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in
Alsace, between the Alleinnnni and the Romans, the former being defeated
by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 378,
— Dufresnoy.
ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of
Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the
figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason
was for the recovery of the golden fieece. This is the first naval expedition
on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first
heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its
builder, 1263 b. c.—Dnfrcsnoy.
ARGrOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 1j. c, or 1080 years be-
174 THE world's progress. [ ARK
fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from tlie founder were
called InachidcB, of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to
the country. When the Heraclidae took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c.
1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a
repuhlic, and distinguished itself in all the w^ars of Greece. — Euripides.
Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856
Phoroneus reigns sixty years . 18(r
Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747
The city of Argos built by Argus, son
ofNiobe 1711
Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his
father, and reigns .... 1641
Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes
part of the kingdom, and calls it af-
ter his wife, Messenia . . 1552
Reign of Crotopus .... 1506
Sthenelus reigns .... 1485
Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474
Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of
Hypermnestra, who saved her hus-
band, while her forty-nine sisters sa-
crificed theirs, i^ee Flambeaux^ B.C. 1425
Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose )ife
had been preserved by his wife, de-
thrones Danaus .... ;1425
Reign of Abas ... 13S1
Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri-
sius 1361
Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas-
sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 1361
Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1314
Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My-
cenae (which see.) .... 1313
Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was
lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826.
Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece imder Otho, the present
and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece.
ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny iLe
divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned
by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the
reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried
into Aft-ica under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the
Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence
arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve-
tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I ^Heresie.
ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty.
It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The
oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his
Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used
A. D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of
Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant^ in 156. Notation by nine
digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan —
introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng-
land, 1263. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the Worlds Arabic characters,
is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in
England on arithmetic {d£ Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur-
ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions w^as perfected by lord Napier
in his Rabdologia, in 1617.
ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being
the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c.
But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck
there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves : this
place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in
breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about
a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told,
three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for
birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the
figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a
door in the first floor, and a great window in the third.
ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase.
It was made a separate territory in 1819. and was admitted into the Union
In 1886. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves
iLRM ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 175
ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con-
sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C
volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel,
July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten
fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put
to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and
Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral
Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging
the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis-
persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the Nortli
Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement,
and 5,000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland,
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. Tlic
English lost but one ship. — Rapm, Carte, Hume.
ARMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by
St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444.
ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers,
against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but
its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow-
ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral
bottoms being contrary to the maritime sj^stem of England, the British
•cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den-
mark before Copenhagen, A])ril 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was
obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to
the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved.
A RMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347
B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar-
menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor
shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whose
priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters,
prior to marriage. — Martbi's Me7noires sur VArmenie.
Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30
He is restored to his throne, and dies.—
Blair 1
Reign of Venones . . a. d. 16
Zenon reigns . . . .18
Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36
City of Artaxarta built . . B.C. 186
Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93
He is called to the throne of Syria, as-
sumes the fastidious title of " King of
Kings," and is served by tributary
princes ..... 83 ^
Tigranes defeated by LucuU us . 69! He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37
Again defeated, and lays his crown at • Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power
theijaet of Pompey . . 66
His son, Artavasdes, reigns . * . 54
Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju-
lius Caesar . . . .48
Artavasdes assists the Parthians against
Marc Antony ... 36
Antony subdues, and sends him loaded
with silver chains to Egypt, to grace
his triumph . . . .34
The Armenian soldiers crown hi^
paramount in Armenia . . 62
Armenia reduced to a Persian province
under Sapor . . . 365
Subdued by the Saracens . . 687
Irruption of the Turks . . 755
Agam made a Persian province, under
Uflan Cassanes . . . 1472
Subdued by Selim H. . . 1522
Overrun by the Russians . . 1828
Surrender of Erzeroum July 1629
Artaxias . . . . 33 1 (See Syria.)
A RMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a. d. 652 : the Ecclesiastical
year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 651 years
and 221 days; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August
10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre*
spondence with Europeans.
ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a
manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their
i/6 '.HE world's progress. [ ARM
natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame. It h
said to. have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c.
ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption,
and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially
asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powers.
They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well aS their Tiecessity, in
securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines of
the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland
and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618.
Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt.
ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the
twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban-
ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order
at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote
colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum-
biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798— and again in 1808.
ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence 'han
the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron
armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons
was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the
weU-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo-
Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy
cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen
had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid
about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used,
not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry
VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500.
Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of
Charles II. oflicers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem-
orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick.
ARMS. The club was the first oflensive weapon; then followed the mace,
battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles
were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the
Phoenicians. See the various weapons through the volume.
ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of
fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing
army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing
armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The
first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in
France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by
Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II.
1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following
armies : Spain 150,000 men ; Great Britain, 310,000 ; Prussia, 350,000 ; Tur-
key, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 660,000; and France, 680,000.
ARMY, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King-
dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted
for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary return.s and other official
records :
1700, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men . . sum voted je7,847,000
1800, War ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973,000
1810, War ; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26,748,000
1815, Last year cf the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39,150,000
1820, Time of peace; war incumbrances . ditto 89,1 00 men., ditto 18,253,000
1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men. . ditto 6,991,000
In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted
was .£4,487,763. Bee Militia 2^x16. Volunteers.
AS8J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 177
ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a Ger-
man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery
was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of
1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in
1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the
battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex,
1543. — Rymer^s Fxdera. Made of brass, 1635 ; improvements by Browne,
1728. See Iron.
ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was
composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic,
arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society
of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of
Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics,
was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and
of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the
artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this
society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the
Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Acadcriiy. The Society of British Art-
ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April
19,1824. — See British Museum ; British Institution; National Gallery, d^c.
ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from
1582 to 355 B. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of
37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wore found in the Isle of
Pares, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord
Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. '.rhe characters are
Greek.' of which there are two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux^
1676.— See Kidd's Tracts; and PorsoWs Treatise, 1789.
ASCALON, Battle of ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris-
tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other
infidels. No less than 40.000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of
battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer.
ASH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent
until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487,
first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the
number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink-
ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of
Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was
abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show."
ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus
and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world
peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the
greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of
the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon.
ASPERNE. Battlp: of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles,
and the French, fought on the 21st May. 1809, and two following days. In
this most sanguinary fight, tlie loss of the former army exceeded 20,000
men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat
of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he
had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat
endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on
the subsequent prosecution of the war.
ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles-
bury and others to assassinate king William III., near Richmo-^ ' Surrey, a»
8*
178 THE world's progress. t ASS
he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was to have been con-
summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast.
— Hist, England.
ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans,
settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont-
ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan o/
Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in
1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the
title of '^Ancie7it of the Mountains.'^
ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur-
nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It
began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the
treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to
Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea.
ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the
revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At
one period the enornfbus amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions
of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen-
dencies.— Alison.
ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the
Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her
corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to
have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted
in 813.
ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius
ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Ca}sar, a.d. 43. It is certain that assu-
rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern-
ing it are in the Lex Ol€ro7i, by which it appears to have been known in
Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a
precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the
first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth,
1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria.
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus
wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the
Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the
union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter
founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last-
named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace,
with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all
perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy-
rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet.
The tower of Babel built.— Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her
6 ; xi. I.— Blair - - b. c. 2247 dominion. — Lenglet - b. c. 2017
The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia,
Astronomical observations begun by
the Chaldeans - - - 2234
Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher - 2124
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria,
and names his capital after himself - 2069
Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having
subdued the Armenians, Persians,
Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab-
lishes what is properly the Assyrian
monarchy, of which Nnieveh was the i The prophet Jonah appears m the
seat of empire.— !>/«/;• - - 2059 | streets of Nineveh— j5/ajV . . 840
Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Ninoveh taken by Arbaces - . 820
and India. — Lenglet - - - 1975
The Arabs seize Nineveh • • - 1937
Belochus, the last king of the race of
Ninus.— B/mr - . - - 1446
He makes Jiis daughter, Artossa, sur-
named Semiramis II.,' his associate
on the throne - - - - 1433
Belatores reigns .... 1421
AST J
THE world's progress.
179
ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul,
the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b. c, and
the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being
besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death,
and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda-
napalus I. See precedijig article. Nineveh was then razed to the groimd,
and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by
the Turks in 1637 a. d. — Priestley.
Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge-
777 neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa-
lem, when the angel of the Lord in one
night destroys 180,000 of his army. —
770 Isaiah xxxvii. - - b. a 710
[Commentators suppose that this mes-
senger of death was the fatal blast
740 known in eastern countries by the
name of Samiel.]
Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes
hahylon.— Blair - - - 690
He invades Judea —Blair - - - 677
721 Holofernes is slain by Judith - - 677
Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher - -667
Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621
Phul raised to the throne,
year. — Blair
about the
_ _ B.C.
He invades Israel, but departs without
drawing a sword. — Blair; 2 Kings
XV. 19, 20 - - - -
Tidath-Pileser invades Syria, takes
Damascus, and makes great con-
quests ....
Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports
the people, whom he replaces by a
colony of Cutheans and others, and
thus finishes the kingdom of Israel.
— Blair . . - - -
He retires from before Tyre, after a
siege of five years. — Blair
ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence
was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in
vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — HenaiUt. The
early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted
to it, 700; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated
the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the
humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the
Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made
ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this
period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting
his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson.
ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of
Babylon, about 2234 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad-
vanced in Chaldaia under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about
1100 B. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed
at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth,
and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Tholes, 640 b. c. Further
discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and
believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began
his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in
148, aud made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of
the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov-
ered, h J Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during
which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ;
and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain,
but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography.
The Alphonsine tables (which see) were
composed - - - a.d. 1284
Clocks first used in astronomy, about - 1500
True doctrine of the motions of the pla-
netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530
The science greatly advanced by Tycho
Bralie, about - - - - 1582
True laws of the planetarv motions, by
Kepler - - ■" - ■ 1619
Telescopes and other instruments used
in astronomy, about - - - 1627
The discoveries of Galileo were made
about 16,31
The transit of Venus over the sun's disk
first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a.d. 1639
Cassini draws his meridian line, after
Dante. — See Bologna -
The aberration of the light of the fixed
stars discovered by Horrebow
Discoveries of Picart - - -
Map of the moon constructed by Heve-
1ms .....
Motion of the sun round its own axis
proved by Halley
Discoveries of Huygens - . .
Newton's Principia published, uidtb*
1656
1659
167C
1676
1686
180 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ATH
ASTRONOMY continued.
system as now taught incontrovertibly
established - - - a. d. 1687
Catalogue of the stars made by Flam-
stead 1688
Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by
Cassini ..... 1701
Aberration of the stars clearly explained
by Dr. Bradley . - . - 1737
Celestial inequalities found by La
Grange ..... 1780
Uranus and satellites discovered by
Herschel, March 13— See Georgium
Sidus . - - .1781
Mecanique Celeste, published by La
Place 1796
Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan. 1 - 1801
Pallas, by Dr. Gibers, March 28 - 1802
Juno, by Harding, Sept. 1 - - - 180i
Vesta, by Gibers . . - 1807
Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - 1846
United States astronomical expedition
to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut,
Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 18i9
The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from
us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ;
so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of
them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course
thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from
the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but
the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that
their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par-
ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four
hundred years ago. — Objects of Science.
ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for
those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them
obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for
this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens,
to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus
built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the
coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high,
that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy-
lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very
ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were
secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis-
bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens,
the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This
security was abolished a. d. 1696 •, but the last was not wholly suppressed
until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries.
ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard-
ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 361.
Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution
at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for
them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by
most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed
by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen-
tury.— Du Pin.
ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi-
nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini
publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou-
louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and
had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled
to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciares, because
they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men
of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England
we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small
draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will
certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. " S'
ATT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 181
Dieu n^existait pas il faudrait Vinventer :" If a God did not exist, it would
be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire.
ATHENiEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of
Minerva. One of them was called Panathensea, and the other Chalcea ;
they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus
afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people
of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch.
Al'HEN^UM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and
philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated
Athenaea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of ffreat
beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. —
TillemonVs Life of Adrian.
ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent
ruins yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor.
The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned
in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge
took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or
Noah's flood) that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two
hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by
whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first
state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 years,
but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second
state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in
its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years,
and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years.
Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized
themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and
perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short
space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to
distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes
of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204,
and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro-
vince of European Turkey ; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece,
and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th,
1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from
b, c. 1556 to b. c. 21.
ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere,
stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79
B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630;
its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by
Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was
ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ;
and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737.
ATTAINDER, Acts op, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses
in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred,
unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III.
1694-5. — Blackston-e. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in
Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689.
The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were
reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least
interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who
was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819.
ATTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God,''^ and thus distinguished for his con-
quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro-
182 THE world's progress. [ AUG
man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces.
He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico,
about A. D. 463. — Goldsmith.
ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters
patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for
the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims
concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills
against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William de
Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Beatson.
ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400
for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the
practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng-
land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and
practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 '' pi-actis~
ing lawyers^^ in the United States is given in the Lawyer^s Directory, 1850.
ATrRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite
which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was
described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In
the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ;
a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy.
AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was
about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of
the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779.
AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French
and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns,
and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on
every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri-
soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field. Oct. 14, 1806. The French
emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his
memorable Berlin decree. — See Berliii Decree.
AUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith
drawn up at Augsburg by Melanctlion, and by him and Luther presented to
the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first
consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed
to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax-
ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession,
which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs-
burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg.
AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland
and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea-
ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Munster and Ni-
7negv£7i.
AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or goin^ of birds,
long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals
and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com-
munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and
other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is
named, was the inventor of augin*y by birds. — Vossius. The augurs of
Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and
flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy.
AUGUST. The eighth month't)f the year. It was dedicated to the honor of
Augustus Caesar, from whom it was named in the year 8 n. c, because in
this month he was born, was created consul, or chief magistrate, thrice
aujs]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
183
triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an
end of the civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from
March.
AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by
the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus-
sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded
exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards,
150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic-
tory of the French led to the treaty of Prcsburg, which was signed Dec. 26,
same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg.
AUSTRALASIA, inchides New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea,
New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Ol
a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed
to exceed oiie hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have
been made since the commcncenient of the i)resent century. Act to pro-
vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act
to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834.
New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con-
nected with Australia have lately been formed in London.
AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun-
gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d.
1040, This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire,
Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in
the German language implies.
Rodolpti, count of Hapsbur^, seizes
Austria from Bohemia, and makes
himself archduke - - - 1273
Revolt of Switzerland from the house
of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307
Albert 11. duke of Austria, succeeds to
three crowns — the imperial, and
those of Hungary and Bohemia ; his
family still possess the empire, - 1438
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the
marriage of Maximilian with the
heiress of that province . - 1477
Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip
I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara-
gon and Castile - - - 1496
Charles V., reigning over Germany,
Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain,
the Netherlands, and their dependen-
cies, abdicates, and retires from the
world, leaving his German dominions
to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain
and the Netherlands to his son, Philip
Il.;;-See Spain - - - 1557
The Protestant princes of Germany,
being oppressed by the house of Aus-
tria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol-
phus of Sweden, and this leads to the
treaty of Westphalia - - - 164S
Leopold I reigns.— See Germamj - 1658
Accession of Francis, duke of JLorrainc,
who marries the celebrated queen of
Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of
the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745
Rei|sn of Joseph II. - - -1765
Religious toleration granted - - 1776
The emperor controls, the pope - 1782
Reign of Leopold II. - - -1790
Reign of Francis II. • - -1792
Austria becomes a distinct empire, and
Francis II. of Germany takes the title
of L of Austria ■ Aug. 9, 1804
The emperor issues his declaration
against France - - Aug. 5, 18(>C
Napoleon, after many victories, enters
Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805
Vienna evacuated by the French,
Jan. 12, 1806
They again capture it - May 13, 1809
But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809
Napoleon marries the archduchess
Maria Louisa, the daughter of the
emperor - - April 1, 1810
Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814
Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815
Death of Francis I., and accession of
Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835
New treaty of commerce with England
July 3, 183S
Ferdinand is crowned with great splen-
dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838
Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re-
forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ;
freedom of the press and national
guard granted by the emperor
March 13, ms
The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo-
lition of the censorship and conven-
tion of the states ; the people demand
more, and are refused March 18, *'
Milan revolts, and contends successfully
with the soldiery - March 5«, "
I Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en-
tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia
March 23, "
Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion
March, "
The emperor retires to Innsbruck
Mavis, "
Austrian army under Radetsky holds in
check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in
Lombardy - - May — "
Is defeated find driven to Mantua May 29, "
184 THE world's progress. [azo
AUSTRIA, continued.
Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates ; his brother,
summoned by the Ban oi Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ;
May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph
Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 1846
blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution
Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1849
detsky - - • June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great
Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30, "
The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days
Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, "
minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus-
the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , "
measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment
new ministry ; the emperor flies June 11, "
Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, "
The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren-
six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, "
Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions.
mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna^ &c.
sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the
city and masters it Nov. 2, "
Before the establishment of the Confederation of tlie Rhine in 1806, Fran-
cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of
Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic
Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head
of that body.
AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property.
AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of
a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ;
and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman
Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this
kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in
vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty suflferers perished in the flames,
1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — AsJie.
AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat
was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several
times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was
restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to
France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of
Miat year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815.
AXE, WEDGE. WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari-
ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to
have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c.
AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata-
lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled
by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with
beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet
flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of hawks, and he
therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took
place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757.
Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed
the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St.
Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island
called. Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812.
BAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 185
B.
BABEL, THE Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b. c. The temple of
Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magniUcent in the
world ; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one
of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures'), who was deified
after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnincent bed, whither
the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there
honored with the company of the god. — Blair.
BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth,
for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab-
ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his
own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the
queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to
this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would
accept of him as a husband. 1586.
BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy
writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2215 b. c. — Lenglet. Ninus of
Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy-
rian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 b.c. According to
Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; accordino: to Justin, 1300 years ;
according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has
adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by
Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de-
throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby-
lonian, and Median kingdoms, 8'20 b. c. — See Assyrm.
The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247
The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245
Ashur builds a city, afterwards called
Nineveh - - -2245
The astronomical observations are be-
gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. —
Blair; Lenglet - - -2234
Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em-
pire over the neighboring states, de-
feats the Babylonians, and makes
them tributary.— C/s^er - -2124
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria,
The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and
in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its
greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it
was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is
scarcely inown to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist.
BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in
Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called
Dionysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under
the name of Bacchanalia.
BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried
men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at
certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars,
and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After
twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 12Z. IO5.
for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695.
Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants,
in 1785.
BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game
(decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 b. c. It is
and names his capital after himself,
Nineveh.— Lenglet - - b. c. 2069
Babylon taken by Ninus - • - 2059
The Assyrian empire ends • - 820
Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766
Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - ♦ 680
Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604
He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet • - 587
He is driven from among men - - 569
Babylon taken by the Medes and Per-
sians, under Cyrus - - - 538
Taken by Darius.— t/sAer - - 511
186 THE world's progress. [ BRl
stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the
Conquest— Henry.
BADAJOS, Siege op. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the
French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel-
lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following.
This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it
obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder,
to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom.
BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah-
ringen, who died a. d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the brancheisj
of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden-
Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in
the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire,
BADEN, Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau was
ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it
was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation,
in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua-
ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his
people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right
of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt. May, 1849. Insur-
rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection
subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849.
BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The
nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions
of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin wa-s substantially accurate in his state-
ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West
Passage,
BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d.
762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It
has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the
Turks.— BZair.
BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and
Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of
Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a
bagpiper dressed like a modern highlancfer. Nero is said to have played
upon a bagpipe, a. d. 51.
BAHAMA ISLES, These were the first points of discovery by Columbus.
San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo-
ber, 1492. — ^The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized
for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur-
rendered to Captain Rogers.
BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies
were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward
I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken
away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and IMary
and in later reigns.
BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-
reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for
counties in Engliind in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the
name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name was changed to sheriff, 1548. There
are still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high
bailiff of Westminster. The term Bum-ba-iLiff\s a corruption of bound-bailiff,
every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good be-
havior.— Blackstone.
BAh ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. lS7
BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and
control ambition ; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian poli-
ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France —
Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power
was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648.
BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons. —
Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the fii-st who intro-
duced ballads into England. " The harp was sent round, that those might
sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Mahnsbury. Canute com-
posed one. — Tamer. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ;
but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues,
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner.
BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may
make the laws." — E^lcicker of Saltoun. A British statesman has said, "Give
me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com-
mand every other species of composition, I Avill fix public opinion, and rule
public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all
your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence."
The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those
of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ;
Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833.
BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One
performed at the interview between Hen. Vill. of Eng. &Francis I. of France,
in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Guiccmrdini. In the next century,
they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts
of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore
a part in one, 1664.
BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave
the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon w^as constructed in France by
MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended
at Paris. Pilatrc Desrozier and M. Romain perished in an attempted voyage
from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At
the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the
enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794.
Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by
a parachute, Sept. 21. 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of
23,000 feet, Sept. 6. 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night,
and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre-
cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819.
BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions,
and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants
of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that
place on an experimental voyage, having three mdividuals in the car, and,
after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the
duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836.
BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the Unit<3d
States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the
Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city
in 1797. Population in 1790, 13.503; in 1810, 35,583; in 1830, 80,625; in
1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city
commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under
general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814.
BALTIMORE, Battlk of, between the British army under general Ross and
the Americans ; the British in making an attack upon <Iie town were unsuo
Bank of Hamburgh - -1619
Bank of Rotterdam • - 1635
Bank of Stockholm • • - 1688
Bank of England - - - • "694
i88 THE world's progress. [ BAR
cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great losM ;
the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, lol4.
BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, of
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still
reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected
in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of
London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charle;* I.
laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640.
The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold,
which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to
the army. In 1646, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths
in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valu-
able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England.-
Bank of Venice formed - - - 1157
Bank of Geneva - • - 1345
Bank of Barcelona - - - 1401
Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 „^„.v 1,— ..,.
Bank of Amsterdam - - - 1607 I Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816
BANK OF ENGLAND. (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer-
chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con-
sideration of 1.200 OCX)/., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov-
ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up
to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same
authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank,
and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were
at % per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank
bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ;
small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25,
1797, when notes of one and two i)ounds were put into circulation. Silver
tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the
head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current.
Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction
had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea-
sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser-
voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir-
culation is as follows : —
In 1718 (earliest account) - jEl, 829,930
1778 .... 7,030,680
1790 - - - - 10,217,000
1800 .... 15,450,000
1810 .... 23,904,000
The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in
the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c.
are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted,
*' that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons,"
6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of
the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces-
ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c.,
all formed since 1828. See F^nds.
BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. 810,000,000.
— A new one w4th cap. of 835,000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar-
t«ring it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of
the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi-
dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J.
Buane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sept. 28, 1833.
Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon-
sibility assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Mr
In 1815 - • . . X26,803,520
1820 ... . 27,174,000
1830 . . . . 20,620,000
1835 . . . - 18,215,220
1840 .... 17,231,000
BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 189
Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on
their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834.
Noted resolution of the Senate " expunging " from their journals their reso-
lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed
Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by
Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for
estabUshing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa-
tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a
" Fiscal Corporation " vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of all
the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster.
BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng-
land and New-York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ;— legalized for one year by legisla-
ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same
month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841.
BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VUl,
1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560; again, 1 James I. 1602; again, 1706;
and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt
may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination befbre
the commissioners, May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused
a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in
gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons
becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their
seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court,
passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large.
NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
1700
1725 -
1750
1775- -
According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826.
there had become bankrupt in the four montlis preceding, 59 banking-houses,
comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy
to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list.
This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented
commercial embarrassment and ruin.
BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and
Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and
that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which
he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The
rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were
killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour.
BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing,
and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriao^e.
The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the GaTli-
can church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in tlic
church of England to this day.
BAFI'ISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised hy
all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner
of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publiclv
baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan,
and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in
rivers; but in iha reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built
chapels, or plac(.'S .s{)ecially to baptize in, which in \\\\j eastern countries was
- 38 1 1800
- 1339
1830
. 1467
- 416 1810 .
- - 2000
1835 .
. . 954
- 432 1820
. 1358
1840
. 1308
- 520 1825 -
. - 2683
1844 .
- - 1064
190 THE world's progress. [BAH
\>7 dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they
use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ;
our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon.
BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their
opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1526, but much
earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in
the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in
1636. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led
the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732, — See Anabaptists.
BARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother
plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was,
with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl-
borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental
visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit-
ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed,
by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every
thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1796 ; and two
great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou-
sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831.
The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator^ has re-
corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island.
BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In
England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the
barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the
former sign.
BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that
of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was
formed under this name in 1808, and the London company was incorporated,
1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute
of Henry VIII.
BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain,
and Ireland. Deraodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the
Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo,
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the
English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets.
They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost
down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in
the fifth. The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish
sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See
Ballads.
BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed-
ward IV. gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War-
wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks.
BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle
of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's
abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated i\iQ action of a pump with mercury, and
made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena.
Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695;
marine in 1700.
VRONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in
England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and
by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his-
tory of England, and im^loubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned
to parlianifmt : but such is the deficiency of public records, that the first
bat] dictionary of dates. 191
precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. The
first who was raised to this dignity hy patent was John de Beauchamp,
created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1887. Barons first sum-
moned to parliament; 1205. Took arms against king John, and com-
pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the
forests, at Runnymcde, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a
coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete
armor in the reign of Henry III. — Beatson.
BARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here-
ditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created
in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625.
BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I.
about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng-
land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser-
geants, &c.
BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel-
ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered
on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55°
below zero of Falirenheit.
BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre op St. Tliis dreadful massacre in France com-
menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartliolomew, August 24,
1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were
murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at
the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his -mother.
The masaacro was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even
as regarded the female and the infant.
BASTILE OF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in
1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1883.
It was afterw^ards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be-
came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It
was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in
vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France
between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it Avas pulled down by the infuriated
populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced tlie French revolution.
On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other
ofiicers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had
their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having
fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets.
"The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known,
died here, November 19. 1703. — See Iron Mask.
BATAVTA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East
Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred
here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by
the British, imder general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison
surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811.
B ATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. The
thermge of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The
marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules
in those of Caracalla. — Strabo.
BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of
England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's
chiefs, amounting to 629. and called the Battel-roU ; and among these chiefs
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis-
tributed, 1066.
192
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
I BAT
BATTLE, Wager op. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws,
where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant,
and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of
murder, Ashford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818,
the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of
battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had
first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer
was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this
mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large.
BATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some
of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 b. c. These
Eonderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our
attering cannon. — Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter-
ing-ram in demolishing the old wails of St. Paul's church, previously to re-
building the new edifice in 1675.
BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu-
lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol-
dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are
the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in g<.neral history, and
are those also that are most commonly referred to :
Actium (^the empire of Rome is con-
firmed to Attgustus) - ■ - 31
hThelK (^FaU of Persia) - - - 331
Aboukir (T^wrAs)
Acre (Siege commenced) •
(Sir Sydney Smith)
( Storm ing of )
Adrianople (Constantine)
Albuera
Alford (Covenanters) -
Alexandria (Ahercrombie) -
(Abercrombie)
Algiers (Exmoutk) ■
—^ (French)
Alderton Moor
Agincourt
Aliwal (India)
Almanza,, in Spam
Amojr (City taJcen) •
Almeida
Anjou, or Bieagne -
Antoign -
Areola
Ascalon (Richard I.) •
Assaye ( Weliesliy) -
Auerstadt
Augsburg
Austerlilz
Badajos
Balkan, passage of the -
Baltimore
Bannockburn
B&moi (Edward IV.)
Barrosa -
Bautzen
Bayonne -
Belgrade
.July 26, 1799
Mar. 18, 1799
May 27, ibid
Nov. 3, 1840
- 323
May 16, 1811
.July 2, 1645
Mar. 21, 1301
May 17, 1799
Aug. 27, 1816
July 4, 18-30 i
- - 1643 '
Oct. 25, 1415
.Ian. 20, 1846
April 4, 1707
Aug. 27, 1^1
Aug. 5, 1811
- - 1421
Aug. 13, 1792
Nov. 19, 1796
Sept. 3, 1191
Sept. 23, 1803
Oct. 14, 1806
Aug. 24, 1796
Dec. 2, 1805
Mar. 11, 1811
July 26, 1829
Sept. 12, 1814
June 25, 1314
April 14, 1471
Mar. 6, 1811
May 20, 1813
Mar. 19, 17<^4
- - 1456
- 1717
- Au2. 1777
April 13, 1759
A. D.
Berwick - - • • - 1378
Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 24, 1836
Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497
Blackrock (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 3, 1813
Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814
Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704
Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812
Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485
Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679
Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690
Bovines (French arid Germans) - - 1214
Boxtel - - . Sept. 17, 1794
B rand V wine - • - Sept, 11, 1777
Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452
Brenau (Austrians and Bavarians) - 1743
Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757
Briar's Creek - - - - 1779
Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814
Bridgewater (Americans and British)
July 25, 1814
Buena Vista (Amer. and Mexicans)
Feb. 22, 1847
Buenos Ay res (Po»// am) ' ^^ ^'^'^'^
( Whitelock)
Bunker's Hill
Busaco -
Brownstown (Canada)
June 21, 1806
July 6, 1807
June 17, 1775
Sept. 27, 1810
Aug. 8, 1812
B.C.
Cannas ( Victory of Hannibal)
Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio)
Chceronea ( Tolmidas) -
(Philip) -
(Sylla)
Bennington (Avier. 8p Brit.)
Bergen" - - - . ,
- Sept. i'3 and Oct. 2, 1799
Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) - - 1747
. . Mar. 6,1814
Bercsina - - ■ SejM. 7, 1812
Cnidos (Lysander killed) -
Cranon, in Thessaly
Cyzicum
Calais taken
Calcutta (India)
Camden (Amer. 4* Brit.)
(Amer. Sf Brit.) •
Campo Santo
Canton (Bogue forts taken)
Castel Nnovo
Ca.stella
216
146
447
338
86
394
- - 406
A.D.
- Jan. 7, 15,58
June 1756
■ Aug. 16, 1780
April 25, 1781
- 1743
Feb. 26, 1841
Sept. 29, 1806
April 13. ISi:.'
bat]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
193
BATTLES, continued.
A. D.
Cassano {Prince Eugene) - - 1705
Castlebar ^French) • - Aug. 28, 1798
Castiglione - - July 2, 1796
Castiilon, in Guienne - - - 1453
Charleroi .... 1690
Charleroi Fleurus - - June 17, 1794
Charleston (.taken by the British)
May 12, 1780
Chepultepec(ilm.4-iIieT.)Sept. 12-14, 1848
Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814
. . . Oct. 1814
Ciudad Rodrigo (mves/ec?) June 11, 1812
(stormed) ■ Jan. 19, 1812
Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039
Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837
Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) - 1848
Corunna, (Moore) • - Jan. 16, 1809
Cowpens (Amer. S( Brit.) • - 1781
Craney island (Americans and Brit.)
June 21, 1813
Cressy (Ich Dien) • - Aug. 25, 1346
CuUoden (Pretender) - April 16, 1746
Cunnersdorf- - -Aug. 12, 1759
Detroit (surrendered) - Aug. 16, 1812
Dcttingen (George //.) - - -1743
Dresden - - • Aug. 26, 1813
Dreux. in France - - - - 1562
Drogheda (taken by storm,) - - 16*19
Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) - Nov. 12, 1715
Dunbar - - - Sept. 3, 1650
(King of Scots taken) - - 1296
, Siege of, • - - 1337
Dungan Hill - - - July 10, 1647
Dunkirk - • - Sept. 7, 1793
Dunsinane - - - - - 1054
Durham, Nevil's Cro.ss - - 1346
Eastport (Americans and British)
July 1814
Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642
Erie, Fort - - - Aug. 15, 1814
Erzeroum (Turks and Prussians) - 1745
Eutaw Springs - - - - 1781
Evesham - - Aug. 4, 126i
Eylau - - - Feb. 8, 18U7
Fairfield (Amer. Sf Brit.) - ■ 1779
Falkirk, (Wa/toce) - - July 22, 1208
Flatbush, L. I. (Am. Sf Brif.)Aug. 27, 1776
Flodden
Fontainebleau -
Fontenoy
Fort du Quesne -
French Town, Canada
Frietlbur^
Friedland
Granicus -
Germantown -
Gisors (Dieu et man droit)
Guilford
Halidon Hill, Berwick ■
Halle (Bernadoite) ■
Hanau ( Wrede)
Hastings (Conquest)
Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, 1464
Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, 1758
Hohenlinden - - Nov. 3, 1800
B. C.
Ipsus (Antigonus slain) - - - 301
Issus (110,0(X) Persians slain) - 333
Sept. 9, 1513
Feb. 17, 1814
April 30, 1745
July 9, 1755
Jan. 22, 1813
June 4, 1745
June 14, 1807
B. C.
- 334
A. D.
Oct. 4, 1777
- 1198
Mar. 16, 1781
July 19, 1333
Oct. 17, 1806
Oct. 29, 1813
Oct. 14, 1066
Jamac
Jemappe
Jena -
Ket and Warwick
Killiecrankie, Scotland
Kowno -
Krasnoi
Leuctra -
A. p.
Mar. 3, 1569
Nov. 5, 1792
Oct. 14, 1806
- 1549
July 27, 1689
Dec. 14, 1812
Nov 16, 1812
B. c.
• 370
A. D.
LafCem (Duke of Cumberland) - - 1747
Landshut (Prussians and Au^strians) 1745
—^ (Austrians) - April 21, ISO'J
Langside - - May 13, 156S
Leipzic - • - Oct. 16, 1813
Lepanto (Greeks) - - May 9, 1829
Lewes - - - May 14, 1264
Lexington {Amer. revolution) April 19, 1775
Ligny - - - June 16, S15
Lincoln - - - Feb. 2, 1141
- - - May 19, 1217
- 1708
Dec. 5, 1796
May 10, 1757
Aug. 27, 1776
May 2, 1813
• - 1632
B. O.
Mantinea (Epa'tninondas slain) - 363
Munda, in Spain - - - - 45
A.D.
McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.)
Oct. 13, 1814
Malplaquet (Marlborough) - - 1709
Manheim - > - May 30, 1793
- July 12, 1794
- - - Sept. 23, 1795
Mantua - - - MAy29, 1796
— • . . Jan. 31, 1797
June 14, 1800
. Sept. 15, 1515
July 3, 1644
Sept. 12-14, 18i8
April 27, 1799
Aug. 1, 1759
1705
Lisle (taken by the Allies)
Lissa - . - -
Lodi
Long Island -
Lutzen -
Lutzingen (Gustavus slain)
Marengo -
Marignan, Italy
Marston Moor -
Mexico
Milan
Minden
Miuau (Swedes and Russians)
Mockerri - • - April 1, 1813
— - - . Oct. 14, 1813
Mohartz, Hungary • • - - 1687
Molwitz - - - April 10, 1741
Monmouth (Amer. 9f Brit.) - June 28, 1778
Monterey (Mexico) - Sept, 24, 1846
Montmorenci • - Aug, 10, 1759
Moodkee, India - - Dec. 18, 1845
Morea. (Castle surrenders) Oct. 28, 1828
Moscow (6Mrw/) - Sept. 4, 1812
Moskwa - - - Sept. 7, 1812
Moscow (re/a^en) - Oct. 22, 1812
Narva (Charles XII. of Sweden) - 170<)
Naseby - - - June 14, 1645
Newark ♦ - - - - 1644
Newbury - - - - . 164.^
(second battle) • Oct. 20, 1611
New liOndon (burnt by the British) - 17S1
New Orleans - - Jan 8, 1815
Niagara, Fort - • - Nov. 1813
Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402
Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779
Northallerton, (or the bcUtle of the
Standard) - • - - 1138
194
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[bav
BATH^KS, cmdiMwd.
Norwalk {burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22,
Novi iSutparrow) - Aug. 16,
... Jan. 8,
Ogdensburg {British and Americans)
Feb. 22,
Oporto - - - May 11,
Oiterhurn (Chevy Chase) ■ - -
Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11,
Pharsaha . . . .
Philippi (Roman Republic ends)
Palo Alto (1st o/Amer. Sr Mex.) May 8,
Parma (Austrians and French)
(Suwarrow)- • July 12,
Patay (Joan of Arc and the English)
Pavia (French and Austrians) Feb. 24,
Pensacola (taken by general Jackson)
Nov. 20,
Peterwarden - • Aug. 5,
Pfaffendorf - - - Aug. 15,
Pinkey - - - Sept. 10,
Plattsburg (Americans and British)
Sept. 11,
Poitiers • - - >^
Prague -
Sept. 19,
Nov. 9,
May 6,
Jan. 2,
July 8,
Dec. 26,
July 28,
June 16,
Princeton (Amer. Sf Brit.)
Pultowa ( Charles XII. ) •
Pultusk -
Pyrenees
ftuatre Bras
Quebec (or the plains of Abraham)
Sept. 13,
(death ofMontgo7nery)\}ec.. 21,
- - - April 28,
ftueenstown (Amer. Sr Brit.) Oct. 13,
Ramilies (Marlborough) • May 23,
Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9,
ftosbach - - - Nov. 17,
- - Nov. 5,
Sackett's Harbor (Americans and
British) . , . .
Salamanca - - - July 22,
'san Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4,
Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender)
Oct. 17,
Savannah (taken by the British)
Dec. 29,
Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16,
Sedgemoor - - - July 5,
Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31,
Sempach - - - July 9,
Seringapatam ....
( Tippoo reduced) - -
( Tippoo killed) May 4,
Shrewsbury - - July 21,
Skenesborough • • July 7,
Smolensko - - • Aug. 27,
1779
1799
1800
1813
1809
1308
1708
B. C.
48
42
A.D.
,1846
1734
1799
1429
1525
1814
1717
1760
1M7
1814
1356
1620
1757
1777
1709
1806
1813
1815
1759
1775
1760
1812
1706
1846
1382
1787
1813
1812
1813
1777
1778
1762
1685
1831 I
1386
1791 !
1791 ;
1799 I
1403 i
1777
1812 I
▲ . D.
Sobraon (India) - Feb. IC, 1846
Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1&42
St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) - 1455
(second) - - - • 1461
St. Denis (Montmorenci) - - 1567
Sl Dizier, France . • Jan. 27, 1814
Sl. Sebastian - . May 5, 1836
Stamford - - - Mar. 13, 1470
StoDy Point (taken by the Americans) 1779
Strattoii (poet Waller) - May 16, 1643
Talavera de la Ileyna - July 27, 1809
Tarragona - - • Jan. 24, 1812
Tewkesbury - - May 4, 1471
Thames (Americaits and Brit.) Sept. 1813
Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822
Tirlemont (French and Allies) - 1705
Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) • 1762
- . Aug. 30, 1813
Toumay - - ^ May 8, 1793
Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793
Toulouse - . - April 10, 1814
Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461
Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776
Turin (French and Germans) - 1706
Ulm .... June 21, 1800
(surrendered) ■ Oct. 29, 1805
Valenciennes - . May 23, 1793
Varna (surrenders) • Oct. 11, 1^125
Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott)
March 27, 1847
Villa Franca
Vimiera ( Wellington)
Vittoria, Spain
April 10, 1812
Oct. 21, 1808
- - 1702
June 21, 1813
July 5, 1809
Dec. 31, 1460
Oct. 10, 1794
Nov. 8, ibid
. , Sept. 8,1831
Washington (burnt by the British)
Aug. 1814
Waterloo . - June 18, 1815
White Plains (Amer. ^ Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776
Nov. 30, ibid
Wagram
Wakefield
Warsaw
- (taken)
Wilna (Poles)
Worcester
(Charles II.)*
June 12, 1831
Sept, 13, 1642
- - 1651
July 1778
Wyoming massacre
York (Canada) captured by Ameri-
cans - - - April 27, 1813
York Town (surrender of Cornwallis)
Oct. 19, 1781
B.C.
Zama (Scipio and Hannibat) - - 202
Zela. (Ccesar : vent, vidi, vici) • 47
A. D.
Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) • 1697
Zurich 1799
•iAV ARIA, House OF. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century; this
house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a hranch of the Guel-
phian family ; Henry Guelph was made duke of Bavaria hy Conrad H., em-
peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, was
made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was
♦ This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England.
}f. B.— Many of the above battles are described more fully under each name.
BSA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 19£
erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by
the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and
German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This
kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham-
ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct.
17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistreSs,
Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich ; the king abdicates in favor of
his son, Maximillian XL, March 22, 1848.
KINGS OP BAVARIA. J 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated.
1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848.
tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian II.
BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by
Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest,
from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of
William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered
by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart-
ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to
the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei red
in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland.
BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This
weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670.
According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in
1603, "with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter
with so formidable a novelty."
BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar
of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has
several times held 30,000 men in order of battle.
BEADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by
Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in
Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased
persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nunij)er of prayers were re-
cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler.
BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them.
The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with
the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their
beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the
time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the
beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn
by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews.
In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a, d. 1066, until
the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The
Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these ibw
years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave,
\vas olDliged to keep ofiicers on foot to cut off the beard by force.
BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard
measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy
beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard.
In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard.
BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men. the womeii
under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin-
guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege. July 10,
1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of
1 96 THE world's progress. [ BJBI
Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliverance
— Henault.
BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at
the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry XL say, in a moment
of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me
one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon
Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral
of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when
he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any
other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans-
actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but
not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed
him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a
groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in
1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Hc\iry VIII. 1539. —
Stowe.
BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the
skins of beasts. — Whittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and
Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after-
wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used
in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen-
tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers.
BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in
his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the
thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty
paid on ^' ale called here,^^ one quart of the best thereof was to be sold forn
penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in
1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers.
BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun-
dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus,
in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was
admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on
bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in
England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England :
they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since
spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any, — Hardie^s
America.
BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff" first produced
sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent
sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo-
naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of
sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea.
BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in
1207. The '* Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modem
times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they
could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec-
cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a
branch of the order in 1311.
BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor-
mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by
William the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North-
ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon'' s Ckron.
English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particu-
BKL ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
iw
larly in the reigns of Henry VIIL, and Mary, when even women of the noblest
blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.*
BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus-
sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents
of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about
thirty-nine miles, 1728.
BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
and anciently the territory of the Belgse, who were conquered by Julius
Cajsar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed
into a kingdom in 1831.
Became an acquisition of the house of
Austria .... 1477
Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to
the crown of Spain - - - 1556
Seven provinces, under William, prince
of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny
of Philip II.; freed- - - 1579
The ten remaining provinces are given
to the archduke - - - 1598
These again fall to Spain - - - 1648
Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714
And three to France - - - 1748
Ausirians expelled ; but their rule affer-
wards restored - - - - 1789
The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792
United to France - Sej)!. 30, 1795
Placed under the sovereignty of the
house of Orange - - - 1814
The revolution commences at Brussels
Aug. 25, 18-30
The Provisional Government declares
Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830
The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the
Dutch are driven to the citadel, f
by the Allied Powers, announced by
Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1830
Duke de Nemours elected king; but
his father, the king of France, refuses
his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831
M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent
of Belgium - - Feb. 34. 1831
Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected
king - - . July 12, 1831
He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831
The king of the Netherlands recom-
mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831
[France sends 50,000 troops to assist
Belgium, and an armistice ensues.]
A conference of the ministers of the five
great powers is held in London, which
terminates in the acceptance of the
24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831
Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter
of Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832
The French army returns to France
Dec. 27, 1832
Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much
mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834
Treaty between Holland and Belgium,
signed in London . April 19, 1839
, from
whence they cannonade the town,
Oct. 27, 1830
Belgian independence acknowledged
This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian
question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was
maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs,
offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in-
admissible.
BELGRADE, Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which
. the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1466. Belgrade
was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from
whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in
1717 {see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks.
It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in
1790.
BELGRADK Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei^
taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the
Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought,
in which the Turks lost 20,000 men; after which Belgrade surrendered.
Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges.
* Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey,
beheaded, Feb. 12, 15.54 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury— the latter remarkable for her
resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to
do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur*
sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, aftei
mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter
(»f George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Plantagenet. May 27, \b\\.—Hume,
l98 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ BEW
BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE •, an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish
church, used in excommunication, which see.
BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles-
lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto, Latini,
and other learned men in different countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist.
Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fon-
tana. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about
this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza-
beth, and flourished in that of Anne.
ELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of
them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the
potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna-
ces of the Romans.
3ELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The
responses of the Dodonaean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo.
The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted
by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna,
about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II.,
king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert
commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church.
Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, byri7ig-
ing them, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England
by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im-
proved the invention, and caused the llrst tunable set to be put up at
Croyland abbey, 960. — Stowe.
Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs • lbs. 8,400
Great Tom of Lincoln - - 9.894
Great Tom of Oxford - . - 17^000
Bell of the Palazzo, Florence - 17,000
The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal
alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at £66,565 sterling. In its fusion
great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the
people.
BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. —
Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were
baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity,
&c., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap-
tized by the name of Duke of Angouldme, in 1816. On the Continent, in
the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious
solemnity. — Ashe,
BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the
first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in
the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark-
able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread
over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it
possessed over other religious communities, about a.d. 1100. The Bene-
dictines appeared early in England : and William I. built them an abbey on
the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066.
William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes in
Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi-
nated Benedictine dames. — Leigh. Qf this order, it is reckoned that there
have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 460C
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints.
Their founder was Qsmomze&.—Baronius.
St. Peter's, at Rome • - lbs. 18,607
Great Bell at Erfurth ♦ - 28.224
St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127'^,836
Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772
BEN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199
BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then
the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should
become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VII.
to his nephew, in Ib^^.—Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in
England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10,533, and the number of
glebe-houses 5,527; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries,
prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre-
ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels
about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there
are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having n(»
glebe-houses. — See Church of England.
BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but
afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par-
ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin
book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and
if the ordinary said " Legit iit dericus" the offender was only burnt in the
hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was
abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the
claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., l^l^.—Stoioe, Benefit of clergy was
wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827.
BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., in the Uxite:
Statks, The knov/n voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone,
during 45 yt^ars. ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American
Almanac, 1846) as follows :
For miscellaneous objects (such as
monuments, &c.) - • - 438,321
Total . 04,751,293
For theological education and other
religious objects - - $1,05-1.966
For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594
For charitable purposes - • 2,162,412
Forvied
Incomes
Amer. Board of Com. Foreign
1849.
Missions - - - 1810
1260,897
Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824
207,704
» Bible Society - - 1816 -
2&4,514
" Tract Society - ■ 1814 -
308,428
" Home Miss. Society - 1826 -
157,460
[Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula-
tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000. Few
cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in-
habitants,]
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States.
Formed. Income.
1849.
Amer. Education Society - 1816 - 032,754
" Colonization Society 1819 17,414
" Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497
Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635
Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013
United States ship, .Tamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be
given to the distitute Irish, March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from
New York on same errand, .July 8, 1847,
Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, 1847.
BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no
record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in
1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the
Mogul empire. — See India.
The English were first permitted to Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla: and
trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1534 the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 1756
Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757
First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of
The settlements first placed in a state Bengal in the Company, by which
of defence - - - -1694 the virtual sovereignty of the county
Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 was obtained - - Au». 12, 1765
lis garrison consisted of only 129 sol- Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal made the
diersjofwhom but 55 were Europeans 1706 chief presidency - - June 16, 1773
See India,
200 aHE world's progress. [ bet
BERESINA, Battle op. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus-
sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage oi
it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle,
and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812.
BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April
14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19,
1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men ;
and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men.
On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he
exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was
made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it
was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a
dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners,
March 8, 1814.
BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163, Its
five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse-
quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of
Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in
a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the
French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous
Berlin decree. — See next article.
BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England.
It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English-
men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as
prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu-
nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the
Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided
the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.— See Jena.
BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard,
in 1527; but they were not inhabited until 1609, When sir George Sommers
was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of" 9 James I.,
1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another,
by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven
ashore, July 20, 1813.
BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian
army by this pass into Italy ; and it w^as by the same route that Bonaparte
led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo,
fought June 14, 1800.
BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo-
leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a
large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers
gratis for three days. — Brooke.
BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the
English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king-
doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because It
stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in
1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and
after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng-
land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell iu 1648, and afterwards
to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti-
fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected.
BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who
BIB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 201
had an order in England in 1267, are named from this once disting^uished
city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the
form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where
they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called
the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is
much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe.
BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an
earthquake, a. d. 666. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into
the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em-
pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp-
tian army by the allied British. Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua-
tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners,
and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840.
BIARCHF. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins,
Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence
should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established
the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately
for 800 years. — Herodotus.
BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by
seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence
called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at
Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephiis. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In
283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two
members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of
Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and
each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent comparison, it was
found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin,
Martyr.
BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes-
tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ-
ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1456. The next in age
is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek
patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same
time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo,
about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about
1100.
BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and
Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop
Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park-
hurst-and Barlow, the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts; and
archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1668.
BIBLE, Division op the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the
Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the
Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made
by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and
a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228 ; and this
division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1634.
61BLE, Editions of the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je-
rome, a. d. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be
authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1460 — 66. (See
Books.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from
the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1635. A revision of this
edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read '" churches.
9*
Spanish
-1478
Russian
-1581
M anks -
German -
- - 1522
Hungarian
PolisTi
- -1589
Italian
English
-1534
-1596
Bengalee
French -
- -1535
Modem Greek -
- -1638
Tartar
Swedish
-IMl
Turkish
-1666
Persian
Danish -
. -1550
Irish
. - 1685
African
Dutch
- 1560 1 Portuguese
- 1748
Chinese
202 THE world's progress. [ BIL
1649. In 160i, at the conference at Hampton-court (see C(mfere7ice\ a new
translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now
fenerally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first
ooks printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first
Erinted in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be trans-
ited into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed
in
-1771
. - 1776
-lapi
- - 1^13
- 1815
- - 1816
-1820
Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared in several in-
' stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot
Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee,
Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. —
WoocVs Fasti. Oxon.
BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have
made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object,
are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was
formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ;
Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French
Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian
Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American
Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri-
can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A
bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817.
BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark:
with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. . The first act
respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276.:— Fmer's Statutes. Declared to
be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the
same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794. — Statutes
at large.
BILL OP RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution,
was obtain -^d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the
legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all
manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass
it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects,
passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law
respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viner^s
Statutes.
BILLS OF EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their
property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson.
Bills were used in England, 1307. — The only legal mode of sending money
from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782
— duty advanced, 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital
to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of
pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes.
The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many
statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV.
1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839.
BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about
A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the
16,634
In the year 1780, Burials
. 20,507
18,980
1790, Burials •
. 18,038
19,176
1800, Burials
. 23,068
19,930
1810, Burials -
. 19,892
26,158
1820, Burials
19,348
27,028
1830, Burials -
. 23,504
30,387
1840, Burials
. 26 774
BIS ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 20o
great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet
afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com-
plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show-
ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : —
In the year 1780, Christenings
1790, Christeninfics
1800, Christenings
1810, Christenings
1820, Christenings
1830, Christenings
1840, Christenings
BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch,
and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. —
Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an
artist, in the reign of Charles JX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were
introduced in England in 1827.
BIRDS. Divided by Linnasus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight; and
by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the
bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or
on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon
the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the
young." — Dnteronomy, xxii. 6.
BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ;
but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil-
liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643.
The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat-
thew Boulton, in 1764,
BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti-
tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil-
dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z. — of a common
person, 25.-7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of
four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery
recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five
children at a birth, September 3. 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at
a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London.
BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in-
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but
now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in
a certain district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St.
Peter, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a, d. 65. The bishops of
Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by
all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should
belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner.
BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a.d. 180. See York,
London. They were made barons. 1072. The Conge d^ Elire of the king
to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the
clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Congd d' Elire, 26 Henry JTEII.
1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1654. Several suffered mar-
tyrdom under <iucen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded
from voting in tlie house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640.
Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality
of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes,
1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven w^ere sent to the tower for not
reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring
the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit-
204 THE world's progress. [ BLA
ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbur> (Dr. Sancrofb) and
^ve bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and
Mary, 16«9, and were deprived 1690. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of
Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An
order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to
be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be
created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded
in 1846. — See Manchester.
BISHOPS OF IREL^AND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this
country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first
planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of
St. Patrick.
BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The
see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who,
according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of
Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrae, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived
of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo-
lution, 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops
belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin-
burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's.
BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be ..ext to
viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of
Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of
London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops; the
others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in
Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de-
cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin.
The others rank according to consecration.
BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea-
bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at
Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn-
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury,
Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop
of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789.
BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every
fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course.
It originated with Julius Caisar, who ordered a day to be counted before
the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends,
and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added
day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen-
dar and Leap Year.
BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander,
332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed
it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure,
except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took
ft-us^ its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed
Constantinople.
BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the
scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for Ihe
inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and
hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you do\\Ti in the
black book."
BLASPHEMY, This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of
BLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205
England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the
tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 &. 10 William
III., lQ9Q-7.~ Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected,
on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro-
testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the
same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar,
and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among
other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as
late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous
writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen'ji
Bench.
BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and oecame heredi-
tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the
knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish
them in the crusades. — Dugdale.
BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known
in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system
was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in
1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly
in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of BerthoUet was
introduced in 1795. — Blanchtment des Toiles.
BLENHEIM, Battle of ; between the English and confederates, commanded
by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal
Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated
with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among
the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors.
The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest
seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim.
Fought Aug. 2, 1704t.~Hume.
BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish-
ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid-
dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of
sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a
whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century.
See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from
their heads. See article Eastern Empire.
BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.— Fm#<^. Blisters
are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretasus, a
physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic.
BLOOD, Circulation of the, through the lungs, first made public by Michael
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1563. Cisalpinus published an account of
the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved
afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father
Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves
which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of
the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by
whom it was fully confirmed, 1628. — Preind's Hist, of Physic.
BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys-
tem, by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness,
drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed
206 THE -W^ORLD's progress. [ BfEO
strength, 1438. — HenavZt. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix.
and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at
the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv.
BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that
the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans-
fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the
infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and
prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera-
tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving
mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac-
tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in Englawi
(but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One JEnglish physi-
cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way ; he died in 1691." —
Freind's Hist, of Physic.
BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's
household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach,
and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued
by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the
regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these
and other offences, he Avas not only pardoned, but had a pension of i^500
per amium settled on him by Charles II. 1673.
BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally
conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most
active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished
naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock-
ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. of
Bowyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have
worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu-
liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women.
BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration,
established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com-
merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and
plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin-
spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade
was appointed, Sept. 2. 1786.
BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot
be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng-
land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again
brought into -use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was
first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the
inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790.
BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or
novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and,
as is said by Petrarch, " possessing many charms." A copy of the first
edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox-
burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for i;2260, June 17, 1812. This
identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas,
June 5, 1819.
BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally
celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and tlie exploits and misfortunes
of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia,
Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin-
dar,-Hesiod. Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished
and beautiful Corinna.
BOl]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
207
Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216
Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215
The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages
of obscurity follow - - - 112S
*****
Battle of Chaeronea, in which the The-
bans defeat the Athenians
Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo-
nians at Leuctra, restores his country
to independence, and puts it in a con-
dition to dictate to the rest of Greece
Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The-
bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea - 338
Alexander destroyed Thebes, tlie
44r
371
BCEOTIA conthmed.
Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad-
mea - - - b. c. 1493
Reign of Polydore - - - 1459
Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430
Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes,
and dethrone Lai us - - - 1
CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius,
kills him in an afiray, confirming the
oracle as to his death by the hands of
his son 1276
CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re-
solves her enigmas - - 1266
War of the Seven Captains • - 1225
Here the greatness of this country ends.
capital, 335 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all
the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo.
BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose
soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated
water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1880.
The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot-
land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres.
BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation
of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children.
BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes : the title of king
was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their
territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown
was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here-
ditary.— See Germany.
The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are
ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550
City of Prague founded - • - 795
Introduction of Christianity - - 894
Bohemia conquered by the emperor
Henry III., who spreads devastation
through the country - - - 1041
The regal title is conferred on Uratislas,
the first king .... 1061
The regal title is farther confirmed to
Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199
Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his
arms into Prussia - - - 1258
Ottoa M'e, refusing to do homage to the
emperor Rodolnhus, is by him van-
quished, and aeprived of Austria,
Styria, and Carniola - - - 1282
In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of
_ silver are first discovered, and agri-
" culture is encouraged and improved
(e^ seq.) .... 1284
Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his
vices, is assassinated - - - 1305
John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen
to succeed .... 1310
Silesia is made a province of Bojiemia 1342
King John slain at the battle of Crecy,
fought with the English -
:i346
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two
of the first Reformers, are burnt for
heresy, which occasions an insurrec-
tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed
them, is deposed, and the Imperialists
are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416
Albert, duke of Austria, marries the
daughter of the late emperor and
kingj and receives the crowns of Bo-
henua and Hungary - - - 1437
The succession infrmged by Ladislas,
son of the king of Poland, and George
Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1458
Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected
king of Bohemia, on the death oi Po-
diebrad 1471
The emperor Ferdinand I. marries
Anns, sister of Louis the late king,
and obtains the crown - '- 1527
The elector palatine Frederick is driven
from Bohemia - - - - 1618
The crown is secured to the Austrian
family by the treaty of - - 1648
Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742
-1744
-1757
-1775
-1806
Prague taken by the Prussians
The memorable siege of Prague
Revolt of the peasantry
The French occupy Prague
See Germany.
BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry
VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been
poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of
poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished by boil-
ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in the
same manner for a similar crime, in 1541.
208 THE world's progress. [boo
BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of
architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo-
dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made
his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting
(as Erasmus observes^ for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10,
1606. Here, in the cnurch of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth
century. Taken by the French, i 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the
French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ;
Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848.
BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath-
erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charies II., 1661. Granted by Wil-
liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the
three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were
lost, Feb. 27, 1803.— See India.
BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a
century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously
used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in
France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls,
and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen-
inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs.
BONDAGE, OR VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in
ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this
species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See
Villain.
BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have
been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im-
perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at
Pari5, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science
— Freind^s Hist of Physic.
BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and
bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch-
ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that
country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attains, king
of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls.
The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted
together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of
Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in
profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still
more ancient are preserved.
BOOKS, Pricks of: Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy
of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography,
by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roinan de la Rose was sold for above 30Z.;
and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and
they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at
prices varying from lOZ. to 40^. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value
of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by
Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more
superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,000^. — Tirms. II
Dccamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox-
burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260/., June 17, lS12.'-Phillips.
A copy of the *' Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever
printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London
boo] dictionary of dates. 209
in April 1846 for 500Z. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19
in public libraries, is now in a private library in New i^ork.
BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and
being: printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The
first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and SchsefFer, his
son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ;
but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed
works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity
on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in
1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustus. The second printed was Cicero de
Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and
Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy,
in 1550. The first classical w^ork printed in Russia w^as Corn. Nepotis Vitcs,
in 1762. Ldicia7i's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America
(at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de-
stroyed in England as being infected w'itli magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. —
Stowe's Chronicles.
The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigreiv, {Biblio. Sussex.)
the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by
John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ;
and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press-
work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions
for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible^
as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies
are now known to exist — all but one being in public libraries in Europe.
[See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved
wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum,
done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of
New York.
BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is
supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards
was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the
book on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation
oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet
\vas the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum
was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna-
mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth
binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc,
or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841.
BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book-
keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by
Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century.
It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book-
keepi7ig in 1569. — Anderson.
BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new
works published in successive years is thus stated :
Gt. Brit. France. Germany.
1828 - S42 - — - 5,654
1830 - 1,142 - — - 5,926
1834 - 1,220 - — - 6,074
The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under
the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to
56,474, or 1681 each year.
England. — The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years,
from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550; equal to 253 yearly; — but deducting the
Gt. Brit. France. Germany.
1836 - 1,332 - — . 7,891
1849 - — . _ . l^
1850 - — - 7,208 - —
210 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. * [ BOO
reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new
books may be computed at much less than 100.
The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts,'*
issued during 66 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern
Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was
6,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94.
The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued
during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,0i96 ; equal to 372
each year.
The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in-
cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was,
according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints,
we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year.
Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro-
duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and
periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,600 ; and the average
impression of each volume at 750 copicvS ; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes ;
— value at 95. a volume, X500,250. "The number of reprinted volumes,
particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the
reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news-
papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new
copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about
X760,000."
I^ance. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased
since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive
work {^Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the
number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French
press in 1816 at 66,862,883 ; and in 1826, at 128,011,483; and we believe
that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any
thing inferior.
The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly
review," there were printed in France, 3.413 works, in French and other
languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs.
Germany. — ^The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book-
fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by the
booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries,
as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ;
the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but
the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded
5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000.
•'An Augsburg paper states," (says the ".Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,)
" that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000.000 of volumes are annually printed
in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of
more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now
living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. The
total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated
fVom 5 to 6,000,000 dollars."
Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were
published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals.
Sweden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock-
holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several other
places.
BOOK-TRADE of thk UNITED STATES. The number of new works which
appeared in the United States, in 1831 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, forming
HorJ dictionary of dates. 211
1,300 volumes, and the cost of which may be estimated at S 1:220,000. In
1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books
published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount.
Another statement fbr the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : — originals
1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ;— number of volumes printed (1,000 for
each edition), 1,884,000.
In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more
frequent in the United States than in any other coimtry. Many reprinted
English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers
of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a
book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four
editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of
The amount of literary productions in America lias more than doubled
during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments
amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000.
The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im-
ported literary productions in 1834 :
Original. Reprint.
Education • - 73 - 9
Divinity - - - 37 - 18
Novels and Tales - 19 - 95
History and Biography - 19 - 17
Jurisprudence - - 20 - 3
Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful
predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from
foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the
United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may
be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com-
pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300,000 copies have been sold in ten
years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent
income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years,
the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly
doubled.
[The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in the Booksellers' Advertiser, edited by
G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi-
cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-moninly register
m the Literary World.]
American Publicatidns — January to June, 1849.
friginai.
Reprint.
Poetry - - -
. i
3
Travels
-8
- 10
Fine Arts -
- 8
0
Miscellaneous works
59
- 43
Original.
Reprint.
Original. Reprint.
Education
30
7
Travels - - - 21 - 7
Divinity -
. • i
. 25
Metaphysics - • 3-8
Novels and Tales
- 28
Miscellaneous • -25-10
Hietory -
- 20
12
Law )
Biography
15
6
Juvenile \ not ascertained.
Polftical Economy
. 3
0
Periodical )
Medicine
12
- " 11
Science
• 11
9
For six months - 200 - 128
Poetry
11
6
Total, 328.
The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu-
sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals.
BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were
made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their
invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about
907 B. c.
BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary in the
records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ;
commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff,
212 THE world's progress. [ BOl
240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the
loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon,
for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The
road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little
opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took "place, which preserved
the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the
French military power over Europe. See Moscow.
BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term
has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the
election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first
admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the
Irish, 1365.
BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son
inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to
have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride,
and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con-
sequence of the supi)osed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is
mentioned as occurring a. d, 834, It existed in Scotland, but was abolished
by Malcolm III. in 1062. — Haydn.
BOSPHORUS, now called Circassla. The history of this kingdom is involved
in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian,
from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean-
actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by
order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris-
oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro-
vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the
Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad-
miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles.
BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com-
menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770.
The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par-
liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing-
ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more
actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was
born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration
of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822.
Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 181^8; in 1810, 33,250; in 1820, 43,298;
in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons.
BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses
of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485.
The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the
battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had
the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con-
tests between the " Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king-
dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost
their lives.
BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany.
The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors
on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of
the 16th century, when the science became better understood. The study
was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, betwet^n
1536 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus,
the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sy.s-
sou] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213
tern, in 1768. At the time of Linnasus's death, a.d. 1778, the species of
plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of
species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000.
BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain.
The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived
at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap-
tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of
herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson,
about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and
Transportation.
BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The
art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans
at least before 79 a.d., for these articles and other vessels have been found
in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle whicli contained two hogsheads was
blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8.
BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France
upon the peace. 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels,
and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here
with about fifty followers, Aug, 6, 1840. — See next article and France.
BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited
much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in
1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses,
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The
coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of
defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into
volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely
for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva-
sion.
BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the
Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions,
Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of
Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9,
suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New
Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S.
army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing-
ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern
boundary of tiie United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington,
June 1846.
BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi-
ties— a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament.
The*tirst bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in
England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce.
BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty,
armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put
their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka.
one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of
Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly
4000 miles, in which their preservation Avas next to miraculous. The muti-
neers were tried Sept." 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three
were executed. See Pitcairn's Island.
BOURBON, House of, Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of
Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage
with the heiress of the estate, Henry IV, of France and Navarre, justly
214 THE world's progress. [ BOT
styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The
crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran-
teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact
took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were
restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch
was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830,
a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that
year. — See F'rance.
BOURBON, Isle op, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French
first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered
to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are
styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February
1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the
Island. See Mauritius.
BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry 11. of
England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black
Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the
battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son,
Richard IL, (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the
victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814.
BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourigrion, a fanatic,
who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France,
Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and
- some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity
does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu-
ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the
World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her
pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate.
She died in 1680.
BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth
century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I.
played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at
Tunbridge. — Memoircs de Grammont.
BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to
Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was
again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour-
aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker^s Chronicle. The usual range of the long-
bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and
the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and
were discharged by a trigger.
BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatiis of the Romans, and a favorite
sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an
-advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid-
ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre,
behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach
boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring,"
selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c.,
the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing
have declined.
BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of
Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his
genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures
in vindication of ^\\q Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le-
BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215
Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and
September to November — endowed 1691.
BOYNE, Battle of, between king William III. and his father-in-law, James 11.,
fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing
15CS men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James
immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to
Trance. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle.
BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam-
bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip U. of
Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the
seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant,
and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the
great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746
— again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom
of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium.
BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients c we read
of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillcs were usually
distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet.
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are
female ornaments to the present day.
BRAGANZA, Housk of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and
bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640^ when the nation, throwing off
the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of
Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbe
Vertot.
BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian |)hilosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py-
thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp-
sychosis; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to
India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive
their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to
their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world.
They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy-
ments.— Siraho. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de-
positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell.
BRANDENBURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say
it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which
signifies Gatard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified
Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be-
stowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of
Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927.
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem-
berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia.
BRANDYWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri-
cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell
to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777.
BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the
seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the
early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted
with its use.— Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the
ground, 146 n. c, the riches he found were immense and during the confla-
gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together,
• formed the valuable com])osition since known under the name of Corinth-
ian Brass. This, however, may w<?ll be doubted, for the Corinthian artists
had long before obtained ^reat croilit for their method of combining ;eold
216 THE world's progress. [beb
and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that
Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles
made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig
nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy,
BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was
driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the
Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red
wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo^ Vespucci, about 1504. Th«
gold mines were first opened in 1684 ; and the 'diamond mines were discov-
ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807,
the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution
took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don
Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the
throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant
son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil
war ensued. — See Portugal.
BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the
first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hisi.
Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15.
Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of
Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made
from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. —
Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of
barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ;
and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been
eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of
land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou-
isiana (?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat
a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips.
BREAKWATER at PLYMOUl^H. The first stone of this stupendous work
was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the
• great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth,
and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the
bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of
granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a
million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of
the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841.
BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The
breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in
the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Arnior.
BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the
Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided
here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was
taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The
French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of
France ceased here.
BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was
worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy,
it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Cajsar. In the reign of Ho-
norius, about a. d. 394, the bi-accari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from
Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other coun-
tries, and at lengtli it became general.
BRi] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217
BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of
Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven
out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen
was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen-
dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns.
BRESLAU, Battle or, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under
prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on
both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the
same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur-
rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813.
B"^EST. It was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English,
A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694.
The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling,
1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The
magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot
of the Frerilli navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England
during the late war.
BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting
formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun-
try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of
England, 1066.
BRETIGNY, Pkace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng-
land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord,
Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, and Rovergne, and renounced her preten-
sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to
receive 3,000,0()0 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long
prisoner in London, May 8, 1360.
BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church
of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and
both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among
the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils
of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The
quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the
type called brevier at the present day.
BREWERS. The first are traced to E;2'ypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo-
Saxon ancestors. — TlndaL " One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer,
of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Stowe. There
are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in
Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which
there ai'e in England about 1400; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c.,
who brew their o^^-n ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers,
many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and
the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer.
BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis-
tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the
land for bribery, in 1288 ; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil-
liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery
in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000Z. for the like offence, 1616. Mr.
Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord
Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli-
citing a bribe, January 1784,
BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in tlie preceding cases, made an indictable
offence. Messrs. Sykos and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery ftt
10
218 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ BRj
an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ;
and several similar instances have occurred since.
BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt,
Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made
under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chron. The
size regulated by order of Charles I, 1625. Taxed, 1784, The number of
bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the
number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000.
See Building.
BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by
Uie ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her
spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the
Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on
her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her
l)arents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c.
BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king John, near
Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. i# 1622, and was
given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this
name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality
near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi-
lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name.
BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so
various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient
bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos
is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont.
Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was
built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its
frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could
scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were
invented to account for it. At Shaff hausen an extraordinary bridge was
built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a
man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons
heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by
the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July
29, 1848.
BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and
were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built
at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest
erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in
China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are
Blackfriars, completed 1770; London, (rebuilt) 1831; Southwark, of iron,
1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn,
in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the
Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845.
BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was •
begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the fkther of caHal navigation in
that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com-
mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is
an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the
navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles.
BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain
date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on
public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are
without prefkce or preamble, and on paper ; in whieli particulars tb— «re
BRI J
DICTIONAR,Y OP DATES. 21S
distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always written on
parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St.
Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces
and dispensations, as well as business.
BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and
the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The
allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which
the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon.
BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus^
a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a
distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces-
ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen,
1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655.
Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the .ecorder, into
the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions.
He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en-
sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate
until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some
of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned,
and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1881. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four
were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during
his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year.
BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the -manu-
scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the
Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri-
tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion,
the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to
only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius CaBsar,
55 B. c, but they made no con(iuests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen-
erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty
pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com-
pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Bomitian, a.d. 85.
First invasion of Britain by the llomanp,
under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55
Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4
Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40
London founded by the Romans - 49
Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51
The Romans defeated by Boadicea;
70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61
A vast army of Britons is defeated by
Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at
York - - - - A.D. 306
The Roman forces are finally with-
drawn from Britain - 420 to 426
Tho Saxons and Angles are called in to
aid the natives against their northern
neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449
Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax-
ons attack the natives themselves,
Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 I driving them into Wales - - 455
Reigr. of Lucius, the first Christian kin^^
m Britain, and in the world - - 179
Severus keeps his court at York, then
called Eboracum - - - 207
He dies at York - - - - 211
Carausius. a tyrant, usurps the throne
of Britam - - - - 28G
He is killed bj Alectus, who continues
the usurpation - - - - 293
Constantius recovers Britain by the de-
feat of Alectus - - - -296
Many of the natives settle in Armorica,
since called Brittany - - - 457
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided
into seven kmgdoms - - - 457
Reign of the renowned Arthur - ^ 506
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and
establishment of Christianity - - 596
Cadwallader, last king of the Britons,
began his reign - - - 678
The Saxon Heptarchy ends - . 828
See England, and also Tabular V^iews, p.
7^, &c.
That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred fVom the simi-
lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of i\\v. English Channel and from the con
stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For insmnci,,
a large part of the clitfs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27: 1810.
Pkillips^s AnnaU.
BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national instftutfon was tb-
220 THE world's PROGRESS. [ BR»
grant by parliament of 20,000Z. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay-
ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature
and art, which had cost him 50,000^. The library contained 50,000 volumes
and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertii were enumerated in the cat-
alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same
year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep-
tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased
to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of
curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its
rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles,
&c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking-
ham-house by Greorge III. — See Cottonian Library^ and other collections.
BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the
crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron.
BROCADE. A silken stuff" variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en-
riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi-
nese.— Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians.
— Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons,
in 1757.
BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which
are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of
Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The
cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng-
land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson.
BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng
land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was
enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9
William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock- brokers were regulated by act
6 George I. 1719, and 10 George^ II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Paivn-
brokers.
BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various
other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian
statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug.
10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight
of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added
one fifteenth of lead and silver.
BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil,
under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank-
side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches-
ter; and they were visited weekly by the Sherifl''s officers, and the severest
penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry
11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope
Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax,
which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron.
BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert
Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc-
tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other
communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a
benefice in the church of England. — Collinses Eccles. Hist.
BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The
illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller,'' set out in June 1768, and pro-
ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the
desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia
Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Abys-
UUC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221
sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained the great object of his
wishes— a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in
1773, and died in 1794.
BRUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of
Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of
Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand-
father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughled of Henry II.
of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns-
wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of
any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re-
sentment on him, and in the diet Of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed.
The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family
of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the
house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to difterent persons. On this, he
retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession. Brunswick and Lunenburg
were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several
branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the
eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this
last sprang the royal family of England. A icxolution took place at Bruns-
wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and tliv- reigning prince obhged to
retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 18o0.
BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The
memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches
and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1G95. Taken by the French, 1746.
Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug.
25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its line lace, camlets, and
tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de VUle, whose tur-
ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17
feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly
furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis-
play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834.
BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising
money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas-
trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such
projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies^ and
Laic's Bubble.
BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and
Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon
after th€ latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies.
The" principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois,
Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The
expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont,
in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697.
BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan,
who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the
end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 177.9, and died in 1791, when
her followers dispersed.
BUCHAREST, Trkaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place
between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be
the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent
war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty.
BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was
pulled down in 1825. and the new palace commenced on its site ; and after
222 THE WOKLD's PllOGllESS. [ BUL
expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com-
pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837.
BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri-
sius, of Argos, about 1370 b. c\ When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam-
nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309
B. c. See article Armor.
BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II. ;
but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb,,
wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were,
however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them.
BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman II. at
the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed,
and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun-
gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial-
ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See
Hungary,
BUENA VISTA, Battle or, between the American force, of about 5,000 men, un-
der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under
Santa Anna: the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded.
American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri-
cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847.
BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mcndoza, in 1535. It
was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was
retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12, the same year. The British
suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced,
July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 :
the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue-
nos Ayres and Monte Video, Englarxi and France blockaded the port of Bue-
nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845 ; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas,
defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845.
BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The
shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol-
ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described
as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they
were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con-
verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ;
Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton,
9
BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone,
and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone
was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every
nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be
referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d, 670. The first
bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick
was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it
in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl of
Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase
of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by
Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580.
BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the
emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken
15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one
. eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen
BUO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223
home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by
Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii.
BULL, OR EDICT of the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient
use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal,
deriving its name from btdla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden
bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal ;
and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet ol
Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet
tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the -Spanish Armada
1688.
BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGITriNG. This atrociously criminal sport of
Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights
of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse-
ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a
sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England^ we read of the " Eastei
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and
huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the
Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi-
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish
bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus-
tom, May 21. 1802. — Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru-
elty to Animah. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260: abol-
ished there, " excej)t for pi 02cs and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was
a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta-
tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1810.
BULLETS. Those of stone w^ere in use a.d. 1514; and iron ones are first
mentioned in the Fxdera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close
of the sixteenth century, .and continue to be those in use in all nations fpr
musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stplie,
instead of iron. — Ashe.
BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe,
and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss,
1054 killed and wounded ; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for
want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has
always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and
is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which
the ijorner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished
July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary
contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro-
cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 50,000
people present, June 17, 1843.
BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most
extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most
of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century.
See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads
throughout the volume : —
Napoleon born at Ajaccio, in Italy,
Aug. 15, 1769
He first ilistinccuishes himself in the
command ol ihe artillery at Toulon - 1793
He embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798
Is repulsed before Acre • May 27, 1799
He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799
Deposes the French directory, and be-
comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799
Sends overtures of peace to the king of
England - - - Jan. 1, 1800
His life attempted by an " infernal ma-
chine" - . . Dec. 24, 1800
2-^4
TJVE world's PUOGRESS.
[buk
BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, contimied.
Is defeated at Waterloo
Elected president of the Italian, late
Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802
Elected consul for 10 years • May 8, 1802
Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802
Accepts the title of emperor from the
senate in name of the people May 18, 1804
Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 18t)4
Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805
Divorced from the empress Josephine
Dec. 16, 1809
Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810
A son, the fruit of this marriage, bom,
and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811
His overtures of peace to England re-
jected - . - April 14, 1812
[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow
in quick succession.]
He renounces the thrones of France
and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of
Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814
Embarks at Frejus • - April 28, 1814
Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1614
Again appears in France ; he quits Elba
and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815
Enters Lyons - • March 10, 1815
Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815
Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815
The allies sign a treaty for his exter-
mination - - - March 25, 1815
He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815
June IS, 1815
Returns to i'aris - June 20, 1815
And abdicates in favor of his infant
son - - - June 22, 1815
Intending to embark for America, he
arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815
He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the
Bellerophon - - July 15, 1815
Transferred at Torbay to the Northum-
berland ^aiuX sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815
Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de-
creed by the allied sovereigns he shall
remain for life*) - Oct. 15, 1815
The family of Bonaparte exclvided for
ever from France by the law of am-
nesty . - - Jan. :2, 1816
Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821
His will registered in England - Aug. 1824
His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832
The French chambers decree, with the
consent of England, that the ashes of
Napoleon be removed from St. Hele-
na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840
They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840
The Belle Poule, P>ench frigate, arrives
at Cherbourg with the -«mains of
Napoleon, in the care of :he prince
deJoinviile - - Nov. 30, I&IO
They are interred with great solemnity
in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840
Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815
BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with
its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ;
in Scotland, in 1326; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident
in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V.
1413. — Vraer's Statutes. See Borough.
BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun-
ished with death.
BURGOS, Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca,
which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British
and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but
the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica-
tions were blown up by the French in June 1813.
BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad 11. of Ger-
many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an-
nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed
the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur-
gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip II.
of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the
Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to
France, and formed into departments of that kingdom.
BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth.
The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover-
ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See
Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. —
Eusebius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in
cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng-
land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and woollen
shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries.
BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in-
BUR ] - DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225
stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stowe. A tax
was exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, JE50, aud foi
that of a common person 45., under William III., 1695, and Geo. HI. 1783. —
Statutes. See Bills of Mortality.
BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It
was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe-
trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by
pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no
marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose
of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The
crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London.
The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe-
cuted with WilUams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian
boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as
being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar
murders), December 5, same year.
BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom-
pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India
BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among th; Romans, Jews,
and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest
in the ascending and descending degrees The Jews had two ways of burn-
ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour-
ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio anivKE, to burn
the soul. — See Suttees.
BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn-
ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished
heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This
punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered
in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac-
count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree,
parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the
reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop
of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop of
Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others
suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.*
BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The-
ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho-
mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was
very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the
dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead
is jHJactised in many parts of the East and West Indies.
BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown
to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful
by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen, 1680; of Buffon,
1747 ; and of Parker and others , more recently. The following are experi-:
monts of the fusion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning
mirror :
• It is computeJ, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violenoes
and barbarities were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides those who
were punislied by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were
5 bishops. 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers,
55 women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar-
diner anti Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a
>^-av-a?e pleasure in witne.^siag the torture of the sufferers.
10*
226 THE world's progress. [ BYZ
BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued.
Substances fused. Weight. Timt.
A topaz - - - 3 grains 45 secondb.
An emerald - • 2 grains 25 seconds.
A crystal pebble - 7 grains 6 seconds.
Flint - - - - 10 grains 30 seconds.
Cornelian - - 10 grains 75 seconds.
Pumice stone - - 10 grains 24 seconds.
Substances fused. Weight. Time.
Pure gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds.
Silver - - - 20 grains 3 seconds.
Copper - • . 33 grains 20 seconds.
Platma - - • 10 grains 3 seconds.
Cast iron - - 10 grains 3 seconds.
Steel • • - 10 grains 12 seconds.
Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are
calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron.
BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, where Creon ordered
Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman
vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress
or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia
was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia
was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa-
mous Dips Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi-
dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls
built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this
species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greece.
BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is
the same with the hermce of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the
inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts
from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about
A. D. 1466. — Vasari.
BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarn pro-
vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, Avhose office was to kill. The
butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London,
although it was not incorporated until the second year of James 1. 1604. —
Annals of London.
BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the
early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris-
tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen-
tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow
dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable
butter is made f\*om the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba,
than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park.
BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; thqge covered with cloth were
prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but-
tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement
from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much im-
proved.—PMZ?^^.
BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round
the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis-
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au-
gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack." —
Bellchambers.
BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 716
B. c. — Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins
by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after
him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople
CAD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 227
C.
CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists,
and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his-
tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration,
supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation
of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Cliflford, the lord
Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder-
dale, 22 Charles II. 1Q>10.~-Hume.
CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign
of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; Offa, king of the Mercians, 7&,
and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret
deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the
great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now
styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896.
Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon-
structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :*
Lord president.
Lord chancellor.
Lord privy seal.
First lord of the treasury.
Chancellor of the exchequer.
Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state.
President of the board of control.
President of the boari of trade.
Master of the mint.
First lord of the admiralty.
In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods
and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of
Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of
the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of England.
CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making
the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented
in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making
cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British
navy in 1812.
C ADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence
in Switzerland, formed by the Grisona, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400
to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray
league, 1424.
CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun-
Iry on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed
20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a
redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time
bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and
several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de-
serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen-
sion, he was discovered, and reiusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander
Iden, sheriif of Kent, 1451.
CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c— Priestley.
One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada,
* The term cabinet coujicil is of comparatively modem date, and originated thus : the aflairs
of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Car/terbury, the
earl of Stratford, and tlie lord Cottineton ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or-
nament; the bishop of liondon for his place, being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries, V«ie and
Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest,
meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of
state, reproachfully called ihejunlo^ and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Cijl-
RKNDON.
228 THE world's progress. [ CAL
against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587.
• Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered,
September 16, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but ho
failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet,
under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by
the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800.
Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca
in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820.
Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829.
CiESARS, ERA of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January
38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was
much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held
in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona.
Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John
of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till
1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen-
dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the
year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine.
CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com-
mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy,
broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of
the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by
the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming
flood, A. D. 1642.
CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for
the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in
what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d.
969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru-
saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their
empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthcjuake and a great fire, June,
1754, when 40.000 persons perished. Set on lire by a lady of the beglerbeg,
Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798.
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27,
1801.
CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held
by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558,
and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom-
barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long
exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France.
CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It
was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta
was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants,
in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed
into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence
. twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re-
taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah x)ut to death. Supreme
court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801.— Sec
Bengal and India.
CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived
from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus,
who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of
Caledonia ; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener-
able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, w^hen it was invaded
by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear
CAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 229
to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who
over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth
centuiy of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho-
rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven
the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to
the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits,
customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders
and the inhabitants of the southern borders.
Caledonian monarchy, said to have been
founded by Fergus I., about - b. c. 330
The Picts Irom the north of England
settle in the southern borders - - 140
Agricola carries the Roman arms into
Caledonia, with little success, in the
reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor-
bredll. - - - a. d. 79
He is signally defeated by the forces of
Corbred 80
Christianity is introduced into Caledonia
in the reign of Donald I. - - 201
The country is invaded by the Scuyths,
or i>cots, and the government is over-
thrown, about - - A.. D. 306»
The Caledonian monarchy is revived by
Fergus II. - - - - • 404
After many sanguinary wars between
the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken-
neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts,
unites the whoje country under one
monarchy, and gives it the name of
Scotland - - - 838 to 843
See Scotland.
The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his-
tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed
Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb-
able fictions.
CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means
of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western
ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal-
tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum
exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ;
and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed,
and opened in 1822.
CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by
almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into
ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was
of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than
the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with
any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by
adding two months ; and Julius Ccesar, desirous to make it more correct,
fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener-
ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII.
The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar
year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of
365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had '
amounted to ten entire daj^s, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead
of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582,
that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu-
larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bish
sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus,
1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year
2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400
years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to
correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are
avoided. See New Style.
CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India,
which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought
to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the
230 THE world's progress. [cal
Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro-
hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first
made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton.
CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror
of Mexico, 1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate
UUoa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by
Philip II. of Spain, 1596. "Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego
and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602.
CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al-
• bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used
natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in
1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New California 1769.
Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico,
1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex-
I)lored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with
that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont,
1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by
Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper
California May- August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern-
ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c., 1846. Cali-
fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold
placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848.
Great emigration from the United States conmienced November, 1848. Con-
vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con-
stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor,
Dec. 1849.
CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of
Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes-
sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of
the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a.d. 631. In process of
time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the
title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T.
Herbert.
CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra-
tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472
B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and
beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer,
creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he
presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny,
enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu-
rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty,
the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574.
— Holinshed.
CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore,
and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a.d. 1687.
The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished,
with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to
whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat.
CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by
Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously
known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced
by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some
centuries before.
cam] DICTlOiNAllY OF DATICS. 231
CALVAJRY", Mount. The place where the Rkdkemer suffered death, a. d. 33.
Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated
to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time
of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount
Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142.
Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all
Christian countries.
CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re-
former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal
errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi-
ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angoul^me, where he composed his Insti-
tutio Christicuice Rdiglonh, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He
subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he
differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider
themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A
formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561,
where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs-
burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists.
CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric
takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur-
prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war
of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1703,
when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to
surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to
fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas.
Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was
occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court.
CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic
of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and
Spain •, and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in
the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508.
CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrics
were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza-
beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and
was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted ii;
1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is no^\
allowed.
CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fre-
quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians.
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged o1
king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by
Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during
the Danish invasions, from which it suff*ered much. Cambridge now contains
thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the mos'
ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and tho
chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world.
CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about Ul ^.— Wood's Ath. Ox.
Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob-
scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger
Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural
magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent
invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma-
nent ; the last was produced in 1839.
CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians,
and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields. — Burnet.
232 THE world's progress. [ CAH
CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently
most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are
told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in-
trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments
are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The
last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745.
CAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng-
lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free-
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up
the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in
1662.
CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, ^outh
of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral
Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter
losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797.
CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty op, concluded between France and Austria, the
latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France,
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor-
able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the
Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the
Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797.
CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d.
1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608, but it had been previously
visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re-
stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was
confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two
provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates
on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke
and Mr. Fox arose.
"" CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon-
treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St.
Eustace. Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were
repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham,
governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors,
April 12, 1838. . Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man-
ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at
Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes
took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several
hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re-
bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of
Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of jGI.OOO for Papi-
neau. Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the' C^iwZwc
American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12,
1841. President Van Bnren's proclamation warning citizens of the United
States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met-
calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general,
took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia-
ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying
losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849.
Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against
such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey,
the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850.
CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes
over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The
canal of Languedoc which joins the Af editerranean with the Atlantic Ocean
CAN ] DICTIONARY OF DATl-:S. 233
was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com-
menced in 1676. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced
1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between
the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between
the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was
by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134.
That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83000 metres, of which 17,000
are subterranean passages through the Alps, linished July 8, 1847. In Eng-
land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the
length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there
are but 800 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the
Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams.
CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for cummencing the great Erie canal
in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817.
The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1826. Chesa-
peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829.
CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu-
nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canarj^ isles by Hipparchus,
about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt,
A. D. 1402; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which
flourish here, about 1420, The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts
of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500.
CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history.
It was seized by the Saracens, a . d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken
by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the
Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000
men perished, 1669.
CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax,
or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the
lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were
little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The
wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said
to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of
modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candkberry Myrtle) are
made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which
is fragrant, and yields a bright light.
CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse-
crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the
year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of
the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre-
sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light,
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice
of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order
of council 2 Edward VI. 1648 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome.
CANN^, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to
the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one" side 50.000 Africans, Gauls, and
Spaniards ; and Paulus ^milius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of
whom 40 000 were slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels
of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage.
Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the
battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21,
216 B.'c. — Bossuet.
CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform
us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South
234 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ CAN
American tribes and natives of the South ,Sea Islands eat human flesh at the
present day, and the propensit}^ for it prevails more or less in all savage
nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the
Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I.
The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in
America. See Anthropophagi.
CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According
to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but
this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at
the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by
the governor of Calais, .6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymer^s Fodder a. Louis XIV.,
upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed
upon his cannon, "The last argument of kings." See Artillery.
CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast
in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in
Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen
feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet
four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge
of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon,
in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket-
pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland; this piece is 24
feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States,
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus,
" Charge me well, and sponge me clean,
I'll tlirow a ball to Calais Green."
Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was
fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips.
CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher.
Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon
existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier.
Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon
law author in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. —
Stawe.
CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the
Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so
accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henault.
CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert,
king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during
the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous
for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and
Edward the Black Prince.
CANTERBURY, ARcnBisHopRic of. This see was settled by St. Austin, who
preached the gospel in England a. d, 596, amd converted Ethelbert, king of
Kent. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great
favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's
dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ,
although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas a Becket, mur-
dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo-
litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of
all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had
formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled ajpatriarch.
This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardmals ; and
to the civil state of England. 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St.
Austin was the first bishop, 596. The see was made superior to York, 1073.
CAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235
— See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at i;2816. Vtf,. ^d. —
Beatson.
CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver-
ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into
medical practice by Aretaeus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. —
Freind's History of Physic.
CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed
up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur-
pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng-
land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating
to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822. a fire destroyed
15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and
more than 1000 persons in October 1833.
CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubbkr, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes
by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils,
called HoBvia caoutchouc and Slphuina clastica, and vulgarly called syringe
trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 17'^3. —
See India Rubber.
CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the >ead,
and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a. one
period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their
slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap w\as sometimes used as a mark
of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in
France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear
a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449;
the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII.
into Rouen, from which time they look the place of chaperons or hoods. A
statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20</. (40 cts.) nor cap
above 2s. 8d. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489.
CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the
French in 1632. but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1746; and
re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison
and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven
ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng
land at the peace of 1763.
CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610 : but it soon fell to
the Dutch, It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British
settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the
Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English
by the treaty of Breda, in 1667.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East
Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally
called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea,"
and the " Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of
Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having
reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage
to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the
Dutch, 1651: Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general
Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by
sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to
England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March,
1820. The Caffres have made several irruptions on the British settlements
here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct. 1834.
Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848.
236 THE world's progress. [ CAI
CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients unde:
the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered
by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 14^
CAPE ST. VINCENT, Batti.es of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war
and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville
with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St, Vincent, one oi
the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being
in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the
Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the
enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several
others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English
peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and carl St. Vincent, with a pension ol
3000Z. a year.
CAPET, HousK OF, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count
of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape-
vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues,
A. D. 987. — Henault.
CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built
to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar-
quinius Priscus. 61 G b, c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to
this temple, and the em{)eror Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of
gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds
were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De-
stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. d. 70. The Capitoline games in-
stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86.
CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b, c. The suc-
cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of
Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes II.
became king of Cappadocia.
Pharnaces is declared king - B.C. 744
His successors are unknown for nearly
three centuries.
Rei^n of Ariarathes I. - - - 362
Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria-
rathes is crucified - - - - 322
Defeat of the Parthians - - -217
In'uption of the Trocmi - - - 164
Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as-
cends the throne - - - 162
Orophemes dethrones Philopator .- 161
Attalus assists Philopator, and Oro-
phemes dethroned - - - - 154
Philopator joins the Remans against
Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153
His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp-
ing the throne, poisons five of her own
children, the sixth and only remaining
child is saved, and the queen put to
death - - . . .153
This young prince reigns as Ariarathes
VII, 153
Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. - 97
Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96
Cappadocia declared a free country by
the senate of Rome - - - 95
The people elect a new king Ariobar-
zanes I. - - - . . 94
His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns - 65
He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38
Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia,
dies, and bequeathes hi? kingdom to
the Roman empire - a. d. 17
CAPRI. The Caprea; of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe-
rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat,
during the. seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a
sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806.
(CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given,
fVom their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or
hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging doAvn upon their backs. The Capu-
chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although the
CAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237
rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their
extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe.
CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The
covered cars {currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal
cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the
Elder, according to others.
CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province
declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by
a violent convulsion of nature; thousands of human beings were lost; rocks
and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or
their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed.
CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for
freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror
in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern-
ment in Sept. 1820.
CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, aLd constitute the
conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or
incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the
eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the
popes till A. D. 1160. Tliey first wore the red hat to remind them that they
ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes
of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul IL gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ;
and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1680 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange.
CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed
that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI.
during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought
him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, dc France. The universal adoption of an
amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of
wisdom. — Malkiii. Cards are* of Spanish, not of French origin. — Dames
Barrington. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed
in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800.
In 1825. the duty being then 25. Q>d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were
stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs
paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th
Jan. 1840.— Pii?-Z. Reports.
<'ARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he
first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by
bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. —
De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ;
and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the
initials H. B., arc political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn.
CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a
strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was
made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken
by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745.
CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit of
emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against de.s[)otic
government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were comt^
to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti-
nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies
and free institutions, August 1, 1819.
CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmcl and one of the
four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules appeared in 1141.
Their rigor was moderated about 1510. They claim their descent in an un-
238 THE world's progress. [ CXB
interrupted succession from Elyah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carniel has a monas
tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 200(
feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is ofter
referred to in Jewish histories.
" See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise,
And Carrael's flowery lop perfumes the skies." — Pope.
CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English,
amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro-
lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See
N. tf* S. Carolina.
CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days oi
Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8, Carpets were spread on the ground, on
which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses,
even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti-
cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's
splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in
winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. IIGO. The manufacture
of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of
Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France
in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about
1760. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially
the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder-
minster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu-
facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within
fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn.
CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed toEricthonius of Athens, who
j^roduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France
in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction,
and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the
art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used
by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen-
ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va-
rious: they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were
then called Avhirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ;
and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first
let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name.
See Coaches.
CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Tlieir autlior was Ren^ des Cartes, the French
philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker:
his metaphysical principle ''I think, therefore I am,'' is refuted by Mr. Locke ;
and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov-
ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great
singularities and originalities; but a st)irit of independent thought prevails
throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des
Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. —
Dnf7-es)ioy.
(.'ARTHAGE, founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre,
869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took
refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of
the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total demo-
lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 146 b. c.
when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants
perished in them rather than survive the subjection of their country. The
Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of
this once ?>'nverful reinxhlic.*— EHsebius.
CAS] DICTfONARY OF DATES. 239
CARTHAGE, cmtinued.
Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa.
—Blair - - - B. c. 869
First alliance of the Carthaginians with
the Romans - - - - 509
The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated
by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perislies,
Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480
They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407
The siege of Syracuse - - - 396
Hannibal, at the a^e of nine years,
having first made him swear an eter-
nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 237
Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet-
tones . - - . . 227
Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220
Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as
the Iberus - - - - 219
The second Punic Avar begins - - 218
The Carthaginians land in Italy • 379 j First great victory of Hannibal - - 217
Their defeat by Timoleon - - 3401 Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters
They are defeated by Agathocles, and | Italy with 100,tX)0 men - - - 217
immolate their children on the altar of i Great battle of Cannae Oc/iicA see) -216 ,
Saturn,thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210
The first Punic war begins - - i;G4 | Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated
The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- \ and ?lam in Italy - - - 207
mans in a naval engagement - -1300 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - -206
Xantippus defoais Regulus - - 255 \ Scipio arrives hi Africa, and lays siege
Re^ulus is crucified '- - - - 256 to Utica - - - - - ^M
Asdrubal defeated by Mctellus - - 251 ; Hannibal recalled from /taly - - 2(B
Romans defeated before Lilybceura -250 Great battle of Zama (i.?/n'c/i see) -202
End ol the first Punic war - - 241 ; An ignominious peace ends the second
War between the (;urthagini;ms and j Punic war .... 201
African mercenaries - - - 241 i The third Punic war begins - - 149
Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he Destruction ofCarthage, which is burned
takes with him his son, the famous I to the ground .... 146
CARTHAGENA or Nkw Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Cartha-
ginian general. 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable
mareh to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia,
was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of
XI, 200,000 in 1097; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but
he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege.
CJARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired
from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Cliartreuse, in the mountains of
Dauphind. Their rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and
were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not
leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was
two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The
general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery,
from which the order is named. — Auherii; Mlrai Orlgines Carthus.
CA.RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va-
tican, under Julius II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them
that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of
England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. Tliese matchless works repre-
sent— 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter
and J^ihn healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana-
nias; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; G, the Sacrifice to
Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens.
CARVING. We have scriptural autliority for its early introduction. See Ex-
odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c.
and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and
f fterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers
and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti-
cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares, are mention-
ed by Homer.
('ASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls
is described as being '■ the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring."
The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that
Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666; but they were well
imitated by th(^ spiniiiDg at Bradibrd. and the looms of HuddersPu'ld
240 THE world's progress. [cat
Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about
the year 1650. — Bernier.
CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army,
Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful
visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na-
ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded
that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance,
looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000
persons perished ; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000.
CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French
arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians,
commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively,
from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in
this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,-
000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded.
CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here
about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in
1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isttbella of Castile, and nearly the
whole of the Christian dominions in Si)ain were united in one monarchy, 1474.
See Arragon and Spain.
CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and
built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo
Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi
steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the
nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these
were demolished by Henry 11, , who deprived the barons of such possessions,
on his accession, in 1154.
CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted
the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places
of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818,
explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years
ago: among others, a chef-iV (Eurre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam-
maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na-
tions had their catacombs; there were some of great extent at Rome. The
Parisian catacom>>s were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata-
combs, especiall} Miose of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming.
CATANIA, OR CATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony
from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women
were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for th» dreadful
overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity
to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava
four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in
a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in
1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal-
lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried
in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number
of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817.
CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry-
gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of
the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with
needles, and then looked upon them as mnrtj^rs. — Pardon.
CATAPXJLTJE. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense
weight darts, and arrows ; inv(>nted by Dionysius, .399 b. o. — Josephns. They
OAUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 241
were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.—
Pardon.
CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre-
gory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed the CathO'
lie; A. D. 739. The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474.
See Spain,
CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family,
having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagaace,
and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin cf
his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans,
as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set
Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero,
whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices
arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army.
Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspir-
ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c.
His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence
he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is
said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths
more firm and inviolable. — Sallust.
CATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome."
Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which
alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the inde-
pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of
suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot-
ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of
no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might
have moderated Caesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public
affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu.
CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and
desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of
the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages,
and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb.
23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates, Brunt, Davison,
Ings, and Tidd, after a trial conimenced on April 17th, which ended in their
CO viction, were executed according to the tlien horrid manner of traitors,
on May 1, following. — Haydn.
CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of
Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently
by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It
was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with
fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to
gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with-
out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by
Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors
1548 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasus Portce, anc'
it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made tlieir
way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Straho. Hero-
dotus.
CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of
burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was
the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress
Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gar-
lands of flowers; and from this cirrmnstance the pi(itnre, which was
11
242 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ CEft
bought afterwards by LucuUus for two talents, received the name of Stepluu-
noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinii Hist. Nat.
CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those
who espoused the cause of the king' during the unhappy war which brought
Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round-
heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume.
TAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for
their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the
Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong'-, in ten turmae ; the com-
mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his ex^)ciience and valor. In the
early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force uf cavalry into the field :
they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c. : and 10,000
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch.
CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. It
was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch.
These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by
the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in
1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne
pepper, so esteemed in Europe.
wELESTIAL GLOBE, A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt,
368 b. c. a planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c.
The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus.
The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of lycho Brache,
and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, w^as eleven feet in
diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is
eighteen feet. See Globes.
C'ELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by
pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the
same period.
CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about
A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine hved in caves and desolate
places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at
the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in
692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in
1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia,
held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow-
ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, P3^thagoras, Epicurus, Bion,
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes; and the following
among the moderns: — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith,
Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex,
Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn,
Handel, Wolsey, Pascal Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins,
Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham.
CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all
their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre-
cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom
of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans
were at a distance fi'om their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in
gardens — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains—
Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish
clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being
interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand-
some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that
grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. Jt is only
CBY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 243
within a very few years that puhlic cemeteries have been formed in these
countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the
danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called
for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Pdre la Chaise at
Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London
suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid
out in walks after the manner of Pfere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme-
teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork,
Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially
that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia
(1 83-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in
their natural features than any of those near London or Paris.
CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and
correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over
private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first (Censors
were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors.
CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and
personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years :
established by Servius Tullius. 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of t/ie Roman State,
In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial
periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new
census, 1841.
CENSUS or the UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods,
viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken
this year, 1850. — See Population.
CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro-
man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was
distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the
Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuna^ 566 b. c.
CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally
observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our
Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded
by church historians. — Pardon.
CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by
M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the
naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying
power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas^ discovered by
Dr. Olbers, is still smaller.
CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis-
covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in
the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the
Hollanders in 1603; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The
Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by
the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements
* Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and
li-? confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by
this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the
graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it i?
then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs ; which in Asia Minor, and
Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or
cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placea a chest of ornamente;!
Btone, filled with earthy in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul-
tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles,
which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put aboui
their graves.— WozVe// Chnndlf-r ; Butler.
244 THE world's progress. [cha
were seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in
Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens
in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned
by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove-
reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815.
CH^RONEA, Battles of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians,
and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chaeronea, in which
Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed-
erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle
of Chaeronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c.
CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is saiu to
be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of
one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst
chUin-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the
chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of
Wales, July 1818.— See Menai Bridge.
CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the
Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgse of Britain in the time
of Caesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the
royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an
enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1066. Chain-
pumps were first used on board the Mora, British frigate, in 1787.
CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a
light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Caesar, about a. d. 7. Aure-
lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajaa,
about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chariot.
CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced
2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander,
331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis-
thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed
from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra.
CHAMP DE MARS^ an open square space in front of the Military School at
Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to
the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here
was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " ft^d^ration," or solemnity of
swearing fidelity to the " patriot king" and new constitution. In the even-
ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by
the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi-
nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held
.here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the
country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced
abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under
the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai.
CHAMPION OP ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona-
tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion
still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one
that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary
in the Dymocke family.
CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks
after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the
office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards
bishop of T^ondon, was created chancellor in 1067. Tlie first personage who
cha]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
245
was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own
judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was
more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice.
Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very
ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588:
In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it
was not until 18ia that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancellor
was permanently held.
LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND,
{From the time of Cardinal Wolsey.)
1515 Cardinal Wolsey.
1530 Sir Thomas More {beheaded).
1533 Sir Thomas Audle^.
1534 Thomas, bishop ol Ely.
1545 Lord Wriothesley.
1547 Lord St. John.
1547 Lord Rich.
1551 Bishop of Ely again.
1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Lord Keeper.
1653 Bishop of Winchester.
1555 Archbishop of York.
1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon.
1579 Sir Thomas Bromley.
1587 Sir Christopher Ilatton.
1592 Sir John Packering.
1590 Sir Thomas Egerton.
1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord
Verulam.
1625 Sir Thomas Coventry.
1639 Sir John Finch.
1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord
Littleton.
1645 Sir Richard Lane.
1648 In commission.
1653 Sir Edward Herbert.
1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of
Clarendon.
1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K.
1672 Earl of Shaftesbury.
1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of
Nottingham.
1682 Lord Guilford, L. K.
1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys.
1690 In comrnission.
1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William llawlin-
son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K.
1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lord
Somers.
1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K.
1705 Lord Cowper, L. K.
1710 In commission.
1713 Lord Harcourt.
1714 Lord Cowper again.
1718 In commission.
1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of
Macclesfield.
1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord
King.
1733 Lord Talbot.
1737 Philip, lord Ilardwicke.
1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord
Henley, and earl of Nortliington.
1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden.
1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. IS ; died next
day.
1770 In commission.
1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed-
ed as earl Bathurst.
1778 Lord Thurlow.
1783 Lord Loughborough and others
April 9
- Dec. 23
(in commission)
1''83 Lord Thurlow again -
1792 In commission.
1793 Lord Loughborough again.
1801 Lord Eldon.
1806 Lord Erskine.
1807 Lord Eldon again.
1827 Lord Lyndhurst.
1830 Lord Brougham.
1834 Lord Lyndhurst again
1835 In commission.
1836 Lord Cottenham.
April 14
- Feb. 7
March 26
April 20
Nov. 22
Nov. 14
- Jan. 16
Aug. 31
July 6
1841 Lord Lyndhurst again.
I 1846 Lord Cottenham again
CHANCELLOR of IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by
Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The
office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, hut not as a distinct appoint-
ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin,
bein|= so named, 1232.
CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm 11. who reigned
A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes
assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the
nobiHty. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for
keiping of his bodie, and the seill. and that he may be readie, baith day and
nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield,
afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the
office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott.
CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 606. Settled upon a
better footing by William I., in IOQ7.—Stowc. This court haduts origin in
the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other
courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or
against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married
346 THE world's progress. [ CHA
women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches
of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common law, are
relievable here. — Blackstone.
EFFECTS OP SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS.
1770 - Amount lodged - ^5,:3O0,O00 I 1810 - Amount lodged - je26,212,000
1780 - ditto . - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34,208,785
1790 - - ditto . 13,338,000 1830 - - ditto - 38,886,135
1800 - ditto - - 19,834,000 | 1840 - ditto - - 39,772,746
There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number
of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari,
Returns.
CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the
souls of the donors. — Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement of
the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant-
ers.— See Chanting.
CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of
inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of
the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power
of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom
the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely
drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San-
choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. c.
See Geology-.
CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses
to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot
racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian
officer, mentioned in Acts viii, 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in
the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Cajsar relates that Cassi-
belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000
war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our
phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages^ Coaches, d^-c.
CHARITIES in the United States. — See Berievoknce. In England there are tens
of thousands of charit-able foundations ; and the charity commission reported
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to
jel, 600,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted
in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic
seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin.
CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French
refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de-
scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of
1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until May follow-
ing. Population in 1790, 16,359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820, 24,780 ; in 1830,
80,289; in 1840, 29,261--(a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673
slaves.
CHARTERS of RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of
England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry J.
A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known as Magna Charta
or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215.
The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified
by Henry III. in 1224, el seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it
had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of
frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Mag?ia Charta.
CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I.,
1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles 11.,
CHE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247
1G84; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an
oak to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of
charter governments in America, 1688.
CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient
chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating
to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry
III., about 1243.
CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so
called from the Charier which they drew up and urged for adoption as th?
law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names.
Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838.
Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate,
defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans-
ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near
London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in
Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni-
versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual
parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts.
CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes-
tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by
Bartholomew Cohimbus. with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect-
ing a western continent, 1489. Mcrcator's chart, in which the world is taken
as a plane, was drawn, 1550.
CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another
whirlpool called Scylla. on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail-
ors, and it proved llital to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation
of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi-
ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the
ancients. The words lucid it in Scyllam qui vult vitare Chary bdim^ became a
proverb, to show that in oiu' eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater.
CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa-
gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in
churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory
the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church
song. — Ditfre.moy.
CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri-
sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted
against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning
at any time more than \0L, or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous,
and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711 . — Black-
stonPs Comm.
CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the
process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts
with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations.
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu-
ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting-
don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyfere of Switz-
erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use,
a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons.
CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish
Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the Africs^n Moors,
and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early %es, ex-
tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and Vine ;
5S48 THE world's pu ogress. [ CHI
and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an
early acquaintance with chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo-
sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c.
The modem character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl,
who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the
production of phenomena. Bergman and Schecle were cotemporary with
Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy,
and other distinguished men.
CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70
B. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia ; the finest plums from
Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons
from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree
was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were
brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an
orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year jEIOOO, a. d. 1540. See
Gardening.
CHESAPEAKE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between
the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the
naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire,
1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet
in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British
frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1818.
CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c. ; and ac-
cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and
Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that
the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player
was exhibited in England in 1769.
CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in
a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial
had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be
&woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years;
yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of
his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. —
Bio. Die.
CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos-
ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on
highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases
they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom
which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to
the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. —
Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury
with her, in the same grave, such of her children as were unable, from their
tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su-
perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants
to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to
prevent them from immediately drowning.
CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. d.
1536. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span-
iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and
silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent
cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly,
in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, and with various
success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by San Martin over
CHl]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
249
the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op-
pressors, and declared independent.
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain
of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking-
hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members
of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an
office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again
returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial.
CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim-
neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the
stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use* of
stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among
them ; but this is disputed.
CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed
many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author-
ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By
others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of
the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the
sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao,
which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards
the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes
more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c,
the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the
coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet.
Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta-
The Chinese state their first cycle to
have commencerl - - b. c 2700
The first of the 22 Chinese dynasties
commenced .... 2207
***** *
In the history of China, the first dates
which are fixed to his narrative, by
Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651
Confucius, the father of the Chinese
philosophers, born - - - 551
Stupendous wall of China completed - 211
The dynasty of Han - - - - 206
Literature and the art of printing encou-
raged . - - - .
RehgionofTatse commenced
Religion of the .'bllowers of Fo, com-
menced about - - A. D.
Embassy from Rome
Nankin becomes the capital
The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin,
- flourishes ....
The Nestorian Christians permitted to
preach their doctrines
They are proscribed, and extirpated -
The seat of the imperial government is
transferred to Pekin - - • 1260
Wonderful canal, called the Yu IIo,
completed about - • - 1400
Eurv -ans first arrive at Canton - 1517
Macao is granted as a settlement to the
Portuguese - - - - 1536
Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope
from Rome .... 1575
The country is conquered by the East-
ern Tartars, who establish the pre-
sent reigning house - - - 1644
An earthquake throughout China buries
300,000 persons r' Pekin alone - 1662
n*
202
15
60
166
420
- 449
635
845
blish Christianity •
The Jesuits are expelled through their
own misconduct - - - 1724
ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA.
Earl Macartney's embassy: he leaves
England - - Sept. 26, 1792
He is ordered to depart from Pekin,
Oct. 7, 1793
Edict against Christianity - - 1812
Lord Amherst's embassy; he leaves
England - - - Feb. 8, 1816
[His lordship failed in the objects of
his mission, having refused to make
the prostration of the kou-tou, lest he
should thereby compromise the ma-
jesty of England.]
The exclusive rights of the East India
Company cease - April 22, 1834
Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super-
intend British commerce - July 15, 1834
Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese,
Nov, 7, 1834
Commissioner Lin issues an edict for
the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839
British and other residents forbidden to
leave Canton - - March 19, 1839
The factories surrounded, and outrages
committed - • March 24, 1839
The opium destroyed during several
days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839
The British trade with China ceases, by
an edict of the emperor, and the last
servant of the company leaves the
country this day - - Dec. 6. 1839
Edict of the emperor interdicting all
trade and intercourse with England
for ever - - • Jan. 5, 184(}
250
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[cm
CHINA, continued.
Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of
15 sail and several war steamers, hav-
ing 4,000 troops on board, by ordera
from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840
Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840
Lin deprived of his authority, and
finally degraded; Keshin appointed
imperial commissioner - Sept, 16, 1840
Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the
Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840
Hon§-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great
Bntain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to
be paid within ten days to the British
autnorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841
Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the
conditions of the treaty made by Ke-
shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841
Hostilities are in consequence resumed
against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841
Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841
Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ;
50,000 dollars to be given for ring-
leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841
Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre-
mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459
guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841
Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of
the army - - March 2, 1841
Heights behind Canton taken, and 94
guns captured - - May 25, 1841
The citv ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars,
of which 5,000,000 are paid down,
and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841
British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841
Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin-
ger^ who, as plenipotentiary, pro-
claims the objects of his mission;
Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841
Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and
destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841
The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841
The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns
capturedj and the island of Chusan
re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841
Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many
of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841
Treaty of peace signed before Nankin,
on board the CornwaUia by sir Henry
Pottinger for England, and Keying
Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of
the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1845
CONDITIOKS OP THE TREATY.
Lasting peace and friendship between
the two empires.
China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part
forthwith and the remainder within
three years.
The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-
foo, Ning-po, and Shan^-hae to be
thrown open to the Britisn.
Consuls to reside at these cities.
Taritls of import and export to be esta-
blished, «fcc. «fec.
The emperor signifies his assent to the
conditions - - Sept. 8, 1842
Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger
as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844
Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar
and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar-
tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847
Treaty between China and the Uni-
ted States negotiated by Caleb
Gushing, American Commis-
sioner - • July 3, 1844
ratified at Washington
Jan. 16 1845
Alexander H. Everett appointed
commissioner to China from the
United States - - - 1845
John W. Davis appointed commis-
sioner from the United States - 1847
CHINESE EMPERORS.
The following is a list of those who have
reigned for the lajst two centuries :—
Chwang-lei ..... 1627
Shun-che 1644
Kang-he 1669
Yung-ching .... 1693
Keen-lung 17.36
Kea-ding 1796
Taou-kwang- - - - - 1821
Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850
The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic
information respecting this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro-
vinces, containing- 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole country is
given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at ;e66,000,000 ; and the army, in-
cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavaky; the religion
is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci-
ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and
influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middle
Kingdom."
CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ;
it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain
was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at
Bow in 1758; in various other parts of England, about 1760; and by the
ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture,
in Staffordshire, 1762 et seg.
CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological.
Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun-
dreds of thousands of years ; and their annals and histories record events
CHO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 251
said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived,
more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of
course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their
empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe LengleL
CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall wercde-
feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac-
tion Avith the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall j the
latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814.
CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif-
teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of
most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties
of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him-
self to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to
practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous
adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the
feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon.
CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given,
that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of
James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court
of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter
and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are
found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by
the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account
of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into
the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William
de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the wife of
Geoffrey de Faucre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in
custody until he is of age to become a knight ; he paid into the exchequer
ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports.
CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It
is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used
in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish-
ment, 1650. — Taller.
CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time
of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter-
bury, A, D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602.
— See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient
chorus. — Warhurton.
CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form
as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries
of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where
alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two
years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831.
Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform
quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin-
burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London.
February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3. same year. The mortality was very
great, but more so on tlie Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were
18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this
continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho-
lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It
again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon-
don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap-
peared again on this continent in 1849. on the Mississippi, in New York in
252 THE world's progress. L ckr
May. and continued more or less in various parts of the United States
until November of that year.
CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer
of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes-
da/i in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom
they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This
appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Saviour), the name of
the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement,
the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on
the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before
the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first
Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity
of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred
and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen.
CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, accord-
ing to Butler; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other
authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi,
presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who
were to be exorcised.
CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it
dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th
Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian
period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very
generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era
A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516.
CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was
given by pope Paul II. to Louis XL of France in 1469 ; and never was a
distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions
obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons
were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign. — Henault ; Fkury.
CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of
the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first
taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success
in 156. — Bcde. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri-
ta,in, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in
England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time
it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into
Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St.
Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about
201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility.
In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries.
In Prussia, by the Teutonic knights,
when they were returning from the
holy wars - - - a. d. 1227
In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo-
lished, about .... 1386
In China, where it made some progress
(but was afterwards extirpated, and
thousands of Chinese Christians were
put to death) ... - 1575
In Greece, wliere it was once more re-
established .... 1628
Constantine the Great made his solemn
declaration of the Christian religion a. d. 312
Christianity was established in France
under Clovis the Great - - 496
In Helvetia, by Irish missionarie.s - 643
In Flanders in the seventh century.
In Denmark, under Harold - - 827
In Bohemia, under Borzivoi - - 894
In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940
In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - • 992
In Hungary, under Geisa - - 994
In Norway and Iceland, under Olafl. - 1000
' It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one
day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of §reat beauty who
were set up for sale, he inquired about their coimtry, and findmg they were English Pagans, he is
Haid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed Angeli.forent, siesseyit Christiant,"
CHU] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253
Chiistianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola,
and Congo, in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some
progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the
world.
CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com-
memoration of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ-
mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to
express ttiat he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a
festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be
performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.*
In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {which see) were
deemed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally
keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hc^ly and misletoe used
at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so
with many other like customs.
CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos,
Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all
well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally
priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records.
— Phillips.
CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer-
tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the
.Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun-
dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived
at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is
the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theopliilus, bishop of Antioch, was the
first Christian chronologist, about a. u. 169. See the different eras through the
"wluine.
CHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first
century ; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See
Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of
an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be-
lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral
at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen-
tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle-
light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early
churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in
1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of
Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor-
don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church-
yards were permitted in cities in 742.
CHUROH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation,
and was formally established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church
consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of
Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe-
drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor
canons, and priest vicars ; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages,
Uiat IS, '• they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was
struck with an ardent desire to convert that, unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named
Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the
yofa- 596~Goidsmith.
* Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the
Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the
doors to be shut, and the chuich to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in the burning p'le.
This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303.
254 THE world's progress. [ CIN
and chctpelries, make the number of preferments of the established church,
according to the last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches for
Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818.
CHURCH OF IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the
United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo-
ralities Act of William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased ; that act
providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord-
ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot-
estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other
houses of prayer. See Bishops.
CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland.- Its
distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of
faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It
was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by
an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the
treaty of union with Eno-land in 1707. Previously to the abolition of ei)isco-
pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish-
oprics, which were then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The
Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the
S}Tiod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians.
CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the
Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can-
terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century.
Churci music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting.
CHURCH- WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first
canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also
appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti-
tuted.— Johnson's Cano7is.
CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification,
A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any
signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley.
It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days
after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the
expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and ofier a lamb with a
young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles.
See Purificatimi.
CIDER. Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine,
about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France,
he is said to have frequently passed oft' cider upon the nobility of that coim-
try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in
England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. —
Butler.
CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus
Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of
the Rhine, where 80.000 Romans are slain. 105 b. c. The Teutones are de*
feated by Marius in two battles at Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are
killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by
Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000
are killed, and 60.000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk
in that of the Teutones or Saxons.
CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the
United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and
CIR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255
New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,540 ; in 1820,
9,642 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338.
CINCINNATI, Society of. Established by the officers of the American army,
in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend-
ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest-
ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed
away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned.
CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin-
ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated '^imur ; but in the six-
teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the
Czar, Ivan 11. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little
Kabarda took oatlis of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is
the sale of their daughters, filmed throughout the world for their beauty,
and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the
merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener-
ally Jews. — KlaproMs Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia.
CIRCULATING LIBRARiT. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened
by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had
little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — P^ergu-
so7i's Biog.
CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con-
firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician
and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis-
covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the bene tit
of mankind. — Freind^s Hist, of Physic.
CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant
made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of
the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to
salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary
by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious
rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave
of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted
by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to
which Christ submitted on the eighth day of liis nativity ; it was introduced
into the Liturgy in 1550.
CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en-
terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was
first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this
illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed
to their names. See Navis;ators.
Magellan, a Portuguese, tlie first who
entered the Pacific ocean - a. d. 1519
Groalva, a Spanish navigator - - 1537
Avalradi, a Spaniard - - - 1537
Mendana, a Spaniard - - - - 1567
Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577
Cavendish, his first voyage' - . 1586
Le Maire, a Dutchman - ~ - - 1615
Quiros, a Spaniard - - - 162;')
Tasman, Dutch .... 1642
Cowley, British - - - - 1683
Dampier, an Englishman - - 1689
Cooke, an Englishman - . - 1708
Clipperton, British - - a. d. 1719
Roggewein, Dutch - • - 1721
Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740
Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764
Wallis, British - - - - 1766
Carteret, an Englishman - ■ - 1766
Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768
On the death of Captain Cook, his last
voyage was continued by King - JTTO
Bougainville, French - • - 1776
Portlocke, British • - • 1788
Wilkes, American - - - • 1837
D'Urville, French • - - 1837
* The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was
Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a
westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage waa com-
pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was killed on his homeward psissage, at
the Philippines, in \b2\.— ■Butler.
256 THE world's progress. £ cnr
Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, by
the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else-
where.
CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ;
the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which was built by the
elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia
and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman
feet. This circus was enlarged by Csesar so as to seat 160,000 persons, and
was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and
Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could
be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. —
Pliny.
CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac-
knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of
Carapo Formio {which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution
in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo-
leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice-
roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy.
CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh
century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe
in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab-
stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most
austere. — De Vitri.
CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at
which time even London was called Londonburgh^ as the capital of Scotland
is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in
the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu-
tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police,
manners, and arts. — Robertson.
CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England
a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade
therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as
freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi-
zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent)
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered,
with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads ; alder-
men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stowe. The title of
citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq.
CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French
June 11, 1810: and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained
in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded
by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon
Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from
the position.
CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body
of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first
collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and
a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The
Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and the
Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the
emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian
code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil
law was restored in Italy, Germany, &.c. 1127. — BMr. Civil law was intro-
duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards
CLE J DICTIOx\ARY OF DATES. 257
archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts
only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws.
CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the
kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income.. The
entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000^. and that of Charles I.
was but 800,000/. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on
the new king and queen of 700,000/., the parliament taking into its own
hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list
of George 11. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th
year of his reign, was 1,030,000/. By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil
list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000/. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec.
1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000/. ; and Prince Albert
obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000/. per ann. 4 Victoria,
1840.
CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same
name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laws. They may be
said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008.
Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot-
land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty
of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., Vl^^.— Ruff head.
The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's
feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. —
Ckamhers.
CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament
held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous
power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of
Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up
under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted
without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to
prevent tlie chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical
affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on,
threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume.
CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d.
800; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their
tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the
common trumpet. — Pardon.
CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servius in making divisions of
the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of
eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics,
573 s: c.
CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi-
tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he
succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the
decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. —
Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine
years, then merged into a common monk.
CLEMEJVTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted
for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the
others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of
Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various
interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts
of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and
268 THE world's progress. [ CLC
England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the
death of Gregory XI. 1S7S.— Hume.
CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title o^
presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher
functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites :
this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under
Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu-
lar power.
CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventlj
century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was
forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fruits
of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler
gj were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tlio
Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See CoJiferenct. Two
thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, rathei than
subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty-
nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The
Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had
been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under .^mes IT., 1689.
The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England.
CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen
after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the officers being cler-
gy; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black-
stone^s Comm.
CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome
158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi-
bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Caesar on invading Britain,
55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope
Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona,
invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record,
was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century.
The scapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A. D. 1000 ; den) and the younger Galileo con-
A clock constructed by Richard, abbot ' structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641
of St. Alban'B, about - - -1326 Christian Huy gens contested this disco-
A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his pendulum clock
A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658
The first portable one made - - 1530 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the
In England no clock went accurately pendulum, about - . - 1659
before that set up at Hampton-court i Repeating clocks and watches invented
(maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1540 by Barlow, about - - - 1676
Richard Harris (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escape-
the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- ments, by Graham, about - - -1700
The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and
the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ;
the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud,
Arnold, Earnshaw and others.
CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8.
CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse
woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191; and seventy fiimilies of
cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in-
vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer's Fw-
dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu-
factured, .1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed,
1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun-
tries, 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen
COA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259
countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. See
Woollen Cloth.
CLOVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo-
narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike
prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and pub-
lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ,
he exclaimed, "0, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would
have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans,
and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed
the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of
his new kingdom ; he died in 511. — Hcnanlt.
COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co-
temporary with our Henry VIIL, there were but two in Paris, one of which
belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of
Henry 11. There were but three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one, but
without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account
of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France
travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode
behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of
Mary, about 1553. — Priestleifs Lect. They were introduced much earlier. —
Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of
Arundel, in 1580. — Stoive. And in some years afterwards the art of making
them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament
to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carie.
See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c.
COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the
French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out
of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They
were entered into as follows :
4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia,
and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806
5tli. By England and Austria - April 6, 1809
6th. By Russia and Prussia ; the treaty
ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813
See Treaties.
1st, The king of Prussia issues his ma-
nifesto - - - June 26, 1792
2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus-
sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey,
signed - - - June 22, 1799
ord. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria,
and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805
COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated min-
istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an
extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis-
like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards
the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19,
same year. See Administrations.
COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they
are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use
by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro-
hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human
health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coals
were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard U,
1381. — Rymer's Fxdera. Notwithstanding the many previous complainis
• In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever
«nce the GunrowdeV Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn aboul
with six horce's in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that mannei
pas^d from th«? tower ihrough the ciiy. —Rapin.
260 , THE world's progress. [ COD
against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lon-
don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in Ena:Iand until the i^ign
of Charles I., 1625.
NUMBER OP CHALDRONS OP COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS :
1650 - - 160,000 chald. I 1800 - - 814,000 chald. I ia30 - - 1,588,360 chald.
1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - . 980,372 ditto. 1835 - 2,299,816 tons.
1750 - , . 510,000 ditto, J 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto, j I&IO - - 2,638,256 ditto.
The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in
extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, arc
also of vast magnitude ; and there arc exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire.
The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption,
supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakeicdl. It is supposed that there are
now about 25,000.000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips.
Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries
there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil-
kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from
Newry, in 1742. — Burns.
COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva-
nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles.
COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen ; ' they held,
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world,
after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian
faith, 1665.
COCHINEAL. The pro[)erties of this insect became known to the Spaniards
soon after their concjuest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in
Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing.
The annual import of this article into England was 260.000 lbs. in 1830 : and
1,081,776, in 1845.
COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece.
It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and
was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the
reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on
Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and
again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was
a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis-
couraged by the law.
COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition C?) practised upon the credulous
multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance
was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she
was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was
carried on for some time at the house. No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but
it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762.
COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1500.
The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need
of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles,
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails,
'jordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray.
CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 b. c. : those
of Lycurgus, 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus
Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser-
vius Sulpicius, the civiHan, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian
and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in
435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529 — a digest from
(}OI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261
this last was made in b^Z.— -Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation
of the common law of England, 887.— See Lmos.
CODICILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the
first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills,
about 31 B. c.
CCEUR DE LION, OR THE Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan-
tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192.
This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized
himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This
latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given Mm.
COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a
beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia
Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence,
in 1511, to Constantinople, whore coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M.
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which
coimtry he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof-
fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who
made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson.
COFFEE AND TEA. Tlie consumption in the United States at different periods
is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848)
thus : —
1821
- Tea, 4,586,223 lbs.
- . Coffee, 11,686,063 lbs.
1830 -
" 6,873,091 lbs. -
" 38,363,687 lbs
1885 -
. - » .12,a31,638 lbs. .
- - " 91,753,002 lbs.
1842 -
« ] 3,482,645 lbs. -
" 107,387,567 lbs.
184G .
- " 16,891,020 lbs.
- . « 124,336,054 lbs.
COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs,
in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant,
brought home with liim a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first
house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom-
bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the
first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near
Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657.
Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The
proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea
and coffee.
COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland Jn 1616 ;
and wore carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at
Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the
plantations about 1732.
COFFI]S;S. The Atlienian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree ; ow-
ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydides. Coffins of
marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been
buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough,
The earliest record of wooden coffms amongst us, is that of the burial of
king Arthur, w^ho was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542
— Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796.
COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of
coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose monev
* Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in-
formed by a goat-herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would ihev
wake at night, and sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. Ife ac-
cordingly tried it on his nwnks, to prevent the'r sleeping at matins, and he found th.it it checked
their sTumbfir!*.
262 TiiK world's progress. [COl
was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862
B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 673 b. c.
The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but
others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at
Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that
little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver
were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used
in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresnoy. Julius Caesar was the
first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait
on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more
simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon
their money : the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re-
ceived divine honors.
COIN IN ENGLAND. The fiist coinage in England was under the Romans at
Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as
square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was
used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a. d. 1351. Coin was
made sterling in 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and
maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stowe
The first gold coins on certain record,
struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257
Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. iCam-
den) 1337
First large copper coinage, putting an
end to the circulation of private lead-
en pieces, &c. - - - - 1620
Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665
Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673
Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816
Half-faithings - - . - 1^3
Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles
followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee : after-
wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size;
but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for
more. SeaGuineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826.
See Gold.
MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT.
George III, and regency
Elizabeth -
- :e5,832,000
James I.
- 2,500,000
Charles I. -
- -10,500,000
Cromwell
- 1,000,000
Charles II.
- - 7,524,100
. cy,
gold - - je74,501,586
George IV. - - 41,782,815
William IV. - - 10,827,603
Victoria, to 1848, 32.870.814
James II. - - je3,740,000
William III. - - 10,511,9a)
Anne - - - 2,691,626
George I. - - 8,725,920
George II. - - 11,966,576
The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711.— Davenant. It was
estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen-
ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800.
— Phillips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic
currencj^ is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of
coin, 1830. — Duke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching
forty-five millions. * See Gold.
COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage ft-om
that time to 1836 was thus : —
Pieces. Value.
Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035
Silver - - - 115,421,762 - 46,739,182
Copper . - 77,752,965 - - 740,331
Total - 197,891,502 - • $69,581,549
1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - • $81,436,165
Total in 56 years - 343,261,250 pieces. - $151,017,714
llie gold coinage consists of double eagles S20, eagles, half eagles, quarter
eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de-
posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 180^
ounces. Dec. 8. 1848,
COL J
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263
COINING. ITiis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was
invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1662. An en-
gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements
of the art were eftected by Boulton and Watt, at Sdho, 1788, and subsequently.
The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery
at the mint, London, commenced in 1811.
( OLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to pri^duce the same percep-
tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero,
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost
1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and
in the just proportions of Augustan architecture, — Greig. Perhaps the cold-
est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the tliermometer was
16^ below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan, 13, 1810. See
Frosts^ Ice.
COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in
the place Avhere the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d.
72. The splendid Colisasum of London, and one of its most worthy objects
of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8.
COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which
were munificent foundations to relieve the students fr(mi the expense of liv-
ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said
to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but some
authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date
is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first
doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c.
Cheshunt College (bunded - a. d. 1792 | Mareschal College, Aberdeen - a- d. 1593
— ' - • •' ' Maynooih College - - -1795
Physicians, London - - - - 1518
Sion College .... 1329
Sion College, re-founded - - - 1630
Surgeons, London . - - 1745
Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591
^ . .. University, London - . - 1826
King's Collese, Aberdeen - - -1494 I Winchester College - '• • -1.387
King's College,' London . - . 1S29
V.OLLEGES IN THF, Unithd States. The first established was Harvard, at
Cambridge. Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im-
portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William
and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth,
College of Ncv) Jnsei/, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Cohnnbia, New- York. 1754.
Sixth, Uitivcrsily of Pennsylvania, Pliiladelphia, 1755. Seventh. Broion
University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769.
Ninth, Rutgers, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the
Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded
1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In
1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States; 42 theological schools ;
12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard
College opened Jan. 1, 1848.
COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled
from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into
ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In
the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of
St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint and bones belonging to the 11.000 vir-
gins said to have been put to death jilong with her,
(/OliOMBIA. A republic in Soutli America, foi'ined of states which have
Doctor's Commons, civil law - - 1G70
Durham University - - - * '
Edinburgh University . . . 1580
Eton College 1441
Glasgow Univervsity • - - 1451
Harrow - ' - . - - 1.585
Highbury College • - - I82G
264 THE world's progress. Loot,
declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chiefs
have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prey
to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured.
New Grenada, discovered by Colum- Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly
bus - - - -' A. D. 1497
Venezuela discovered - - - 1498
1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom,
under a captain-general - • 1547
The history of those provinces under
the tyranny and oppressioti of the Spa-
niards, presents but one continuous
scene of rapine and blood.
♦ « V « * « *
overthrown - - June 24, 1821
Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con-
gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico
formed - - - June 30, 18-^
Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825
Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre-
sident of the republic - Aug. 182u
Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 18^(3
Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 182(3
Independence formally declared - -1811 ^ Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 18^
Defeat of General Miranda • -1812 j Conspiracy of Santander against the
Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 j life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828
Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of i Bolivar resigns his office of president of
Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 the republic - - April 11, 1829
Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830
nezuela • . - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - ^ May 26, 1840
COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it
is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by
Thrasyniachus about 373 b. c. — Suidas. It was known to Aristotle. Our
punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing.
The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the
sixteenth century.
COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each.
The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained,
amounts to about 2^500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa-
tion, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van
Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been
ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British
colonies, and for compensation to tlie owners of slaves (i;20,000,000 sterling)
was passed 3 &- 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1,
1834.
COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free
people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash-
ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo-
cated by Jeflerson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the
legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod
Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry
Clay Liberia purcha^ied 1821.
COLOSSLS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high,
erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the
wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown
down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens
on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg
being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could
enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be
discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt.
The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been
repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal,
^veighing 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in
transporting it to Alexandria — Du Fresnoy.
COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir-
ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the pur{)ose of forming the
scat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown
COM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265
and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula-
tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons,
and 4,694 slaves.
COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and
Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed
the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels,
for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. —
Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedj^
434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are
extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Caecilius wrote upwards of 30 come-
dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Lselius and Terence
were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng-
land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy
(the Sr.fiool for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after-
piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama.
COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by
Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen-
dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or
the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was
seen in England, 10 Edward lU., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first
rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri-
fied the peoi)le from its near approach to the eartli, was visible froih Nov.
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses,
by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed
within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared
in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye.
Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles.
COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account
of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of
the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer,
Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre-
dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks.
Its second appearance was in 1832, when tlie time of its perihelion passage
was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845.
COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly
named by astronomers after }>rofcssor Eucke, from his success in detecting
its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the
three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu-
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks.
COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest
astronomer of England. — Lalandbe. Doctor Halley first proved that many of
the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies,
and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet
of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of
the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance t^»
the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore
first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns
— Vinceh Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in
about seventy-six years: it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion oii
March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835.
COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in
the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed-
eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241, — See Hanse Taivns. The discoveries of
Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the
12
266 THE world's PllOGRESS. [ COM
sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage
extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this suoject,
COMMERCE. See Navigation.
COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783.
COINIMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng-
land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward
I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward 11. 1308.—
Anderson. See Treaties.
< 'OMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208.
The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, thi:^ being a Saxon appella-
tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people,
r 'OMMON LAW OF ENGLAND. Custom, to which lenfi:th of time has
given the force of law, or rules generally received and held as law, called
lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law
derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), a. d. 890.
The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See
Custom. Laws.
COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of
])arliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par-
liament, and the Directory {ii-hich see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro-
clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory.
COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of
Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of
two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet
the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen
his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was
the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons
were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258.
— Goldsmith. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament
formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and
writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the
first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The
first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was
killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent
members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminsttr w.'ih
not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life,
or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following
is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the
Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832:-—
English and Welsh - 500
Scotch.— County members - 30
Cities and Boroughs - - 23 — 53
Irish.— County members - - 64
University - - - - 2
Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105
English. — County members - 144
Universities - - - 4
Cities and boroughs - - 323-471
Welsh. — County members - - 15
Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29
English and Welsh - 500
Total {see Parliament) • 658
COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the
decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the
government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan, 30,
1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom-
well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person
of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England.
COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown-
ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 600 b. c, when the goven>
CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267
ment of kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh
and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome
advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy
received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy-
ria. Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub-
dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Cassar this republic had the
Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east;
Ethiopia, in the south ; the Danube, in the north ; and the Atlantic Ocean,
in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un-
til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement
of the Roman empire, 31 b. c.
COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in
the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is
said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth
Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at
least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the
church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548.
COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be
named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company
was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was
the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Th^re are
ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are
1 Mercers - - - a. d. 1393
2 Grocers . • - - . 1345
3 Drapers .... 1439
4 Fishmongers • - ♦ - 1384
5 Goldsmiths .... 1327
6 Skinners 1327 I 12 Clothworkers ... - 1482
COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have
been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1,
was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble,
in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of
fiimilies. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and
1825, and most of them turned out to be biibhUs; and owing to the rage for
taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in-
curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were
totally ruined. See Law^s Bubble, and Bankrupts.
COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese,
1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self-
moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or
water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the
invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d.
1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of
Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a
couple of pieces of straw, or small sy)lit sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in-
troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation
was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com-
[)ass used by navigators v/ere invented by William Barlowe, an English di-
vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass
was invented by Jdst Byng, of Hesse, in 1602.
(CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in ihQ Romish church in
honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or
without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of
Dec. by the church, in 1389. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established
1488.
7 Merchant Tailors - - a. d. 1466
8 Haberdashers - • - 1447
9 Salters 1558
10 Ironmongers ... - 1464
11 Vintners - - . - - 1437
268 THE world's progress. [ CON
CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in
1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and
talent from every part of England. The first concert of like" kind perform-
ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and
frequent.
CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and
Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It
was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published
his classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in
1686; and that of Largius in 1722.
CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small
cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where tiie
cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used
lor the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a
pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at
Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the
choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the
magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical i)4*lace till
they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while
they elect a pope.
CONCORDANCE to thr BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all
the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac-
tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made
under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500
monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abb^ Lenglet.
CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a
prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat
between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VIL, whereby the then French consul
was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics
were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15,
1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff' was sign-
ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 26, 1813.
CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d.
1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage,
both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very
different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is
formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called half -marriage^
is still in use in some parts of Germany.
CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this
memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas-
tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the
people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See
Champ de Mars, Bastile.
CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form-
ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league,
the minor Grerman princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to
serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806.
See Germanic Confederation.
CONFERENCE. The celebrated rehgious conference held at Hampton Court
palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2
James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which
CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269
was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the
United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy
were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was
done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same
view was held in 1661.
CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted
about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest,
in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe-
nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest ; and if this be done
with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in
heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifierent,
by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the church
of England. — Burnet.
CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian church; it was
used by Peter and Paul ; and was general, according to some church au-
thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion
by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the
church of England; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into
a sacrament by the church of Rome.
CONGE DELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap-
ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the
interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had
an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were
elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIIL, 1535.
CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle-
ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held
during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable
congresses of Europe : —
Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728
Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793
Congress o{ Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797
Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814
Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814
CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress^ composed of the delegates
from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S.
Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765 .-Tim. Ruggles, Prest. The Continental Congress
met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774: again May 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4,
1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa.
Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince-
ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at l>enton, Nov. 30, 1784;
at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until
the adoption of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790: to Wash-
ington, 1800.
CONVENTION, The, for foi-ming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila.
May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year.
CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1808.
They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806,
when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they
were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis-
charged by a corps called rocket-men.
CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known
to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of
them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise
was written by Aristaeus, about 380 u. c. Appolonius's eight books wen*
Congress of Carlsbad • Aug. 1, 1819
Congress of Troppau • Oct. 20, 1820
Congress of Laybach • May 6, 1821
Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822
See Alliances^ Conventions^ ifc.
270 THE world's progress. [ CON
written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo;
the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper.
CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by
various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against
them in England in former times. See Sivticle Witchcraft. Conjuration was
felony by statute 1 James I., 1G03. This law was repealed 9 George II.,
1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a Misde-
meanor.— English Statutes.
CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by
a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the
Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently
hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New
Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char-
ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak,
near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in
the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by
the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states,
adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop-
ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237.946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840,
309,978.
CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke
of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the
crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the
Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been
erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England
by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated
his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against
him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus-
toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For-
merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar
who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil-
liam I. — Selden.
CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres coiiscripti was the designation given to the
Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic
and the Caesars : because their names were written in the registers of the
senate.
CONSECRATION. Tha^' of churches was instituted in the second century,
the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a
patron saint. Th? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit-
ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in
the latter church in 1549. — Stowe.
CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with
the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law
of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con-
sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called
the Court of Arches.
CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the
recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark-
'' able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori-
ties of note : —
Of Anthonj^ Babington and others,
against Elizabeth - - a. d. 15RG
The Gunpowder Plot (which see) - 1005
Insurrection of the fifth monarchy men
against Charles II. - - - 1660
Of Blood and his associates, who seized
the Duke of Ormond, wounded him,
and would have handed him; and
who afterwards stole the crown - 1671
The pretended conspiracy of the French,
Spanish, and English Jesuits to assas-
sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa-
con]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
27 i
mo us Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and
others 1678
The Meal-tub plot 1679
The Rye-house plot to assassinate the
king on his way to Newmarket. (See
Rye-house plot) .... 1683
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against
Queen Anne. ...... 1703
Of Colonel Despard and others, to over-
turn the government - - - 1802
Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when
lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803
Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges,
against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804
Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the
king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820
CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States.
Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the I
United States .... 1807
John Henry's secret mission from the
British government, to undermine
the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 181 :i
CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of ^m?<^e5 (!) which co)i-
demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt
alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other,
on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun-
cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in
that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct,
he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend
him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of
his friend. This scandalous violation of i)ublic faith, and the cruelty and
treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of
Wickliffe, our great reformer, prov^e the melancholy truth, that toleration
js not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume.
CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to
Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French
occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French
and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault,
but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with
12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina.
CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantino the Great, who removed the
seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders
who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204.
Retaken by Michael Palaeologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261.
Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Paleeologus, the last
Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as-
sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing
the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy,
and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred
by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer-
or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125
years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe
See Eastern Empire and Turkey.
CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c.
It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used
in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias-
tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined.
To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and
5509 from September to the end.
CONSTELLATIONS. Those of ArcUmis, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzarotk,
are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel-
lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained
in very early ages, our first dh'ect knowledge was derived from Claud.
Ptolemaeus, about a. d. 140.
CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Ckarta. It comprehends the
whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which
5572 TXiE world's progress. I con
it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lm-d Somers.
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in
this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought
to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at
any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated
on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the
co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in
the LAW. — Sheridan.
CONSTITUTION op the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele-
gates from all the (then) states. May, 1787. Ratified by the several states
at different times. See the respective states.
The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New
York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced
an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840.
CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution,
capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer-
riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded,
British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to
the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important
naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others see
Naval Battles.
CONSULS. These oflScers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed
regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius
Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the
first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November
9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambac^r^, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and
subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com-
mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in
1486.
CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions
to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of
the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that
in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount-
ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others,
sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each lO.OOOZ. ; and 200,000/,
were transmitted from India in 1799.
CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and
were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from
the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the
schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time,
were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661.
CONVENTIONS. See Alliances^ Treaties, &c. in their respective places through-
out the volume.
CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d.
270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 680. —
Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took
the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland.
Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that
of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More
than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The
emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July
81, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all
the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in
Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents.
COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273
CONVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany
Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk
Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans-
portation.
COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the
Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav-
ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. ^ Sir
Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society,
accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to
explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. In
his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why-
hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso-
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780.
COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems
to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were
incorporated in 1501.
COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more
than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace,
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per-
sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal,
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom-
barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their
engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen
were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bona-
bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi-
ral Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-
boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark.
COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup-
posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the
planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are
here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to
have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east.
This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be
•regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus.
COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have
preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine
copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this
metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes,
soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 600,000 times its weight in
water; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water
touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The
mine of Fahlun, in Swedeh, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the
world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now
forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty
* A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan*
ages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit
M Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence,
prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed
HI .July 1768. touched at Madeira and Rio de .Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous
voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa-
tions made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed
by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the
distance of the sun from ihe eari' ., as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at
l()8,OJ0,000 miles, instead of the v imonly received comput^ition, of 95,000,U00.— Bur/cr
12*
274 THE world's progress. [ COJ
mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil-
liam DI.
COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used
rude pieces of copper for money.— See Coin. In England, copper-money is
of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into
use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1666. It was again coined
by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ-
ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot-
land in 1406 ; in France in 1680. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com-
menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797.
COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in
Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in-
vented about 1546. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a
mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop-
per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving.
COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius do Vos, a merchant, in 1687.
COPYRIGirr ON BOOKS, (fee. IN ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber
regarding it, a. d. 1666. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed,
1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the
consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright furtlier secured by a statute en-
acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George
III., 1777. Copyright protection act. 64 George III., 1814. Dramatic au-
thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1838. The act for preventing the pub-
lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the
17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International
copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu-
facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary
Property. — Haydn.
COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary
property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah
Webster, the lexicographer. May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it,
April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14
years if the author is living. Memorial of 66 British authors asking for
International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837.
Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books
to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library
of Congress and oflice of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846.
COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid
to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned.
POETRY.
Byron's Works (in all) - - jE20,000
Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000
Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000
Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after
ten years' publication) - - 1,000
Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500
FICTION.
It was estimated that Scott's novels
produced for copyright at least - 250,000
Bulwer received for his novels, each
1,200 to 1,500
Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200
Goldsmith's "Vicar" was sold by Dr.
Johnson for - - - - 63
Fragments of English History, by
CTJ. Fox - - - - jCSjOOO
History of England by Sir J. Mackin-
tosh ..... 5,000
Ditto, by Lingard - - . ' - 4,633
Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000
History of England, by M^caulay, vol,
1 ana remainder, jG600 per armum
for ten years, say - . - 3,000
Prescott's Historical Works are said to
have produced to the author (who yet
owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000
BIOGRAPHY.
LifeofWilberforce - . - ;£4,000
Life of Byron, by Moore - . 4.000
Lockhart's Scott (two j^ears' use) . 12,500
Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) . 4,000
Goldsmith received for '' Animated
Nature" - . . - 800
Noah Webster is said to have derived
#1000 per annum from his Spelling
Book.
COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275
CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of
leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the
third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed
and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See
Hemp,
CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of
the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of
Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see.
CORINTH. Tliis city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus
in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was
rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em-
braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acro-
corinth, on a summit of a higli mountain, surrounded with strong walls.
The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the
Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans,
Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire.
Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, i • A colony goes to Sicily, and they build
{Abhe Lenglet) . - B.C. 1520
Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first
called by its name - - - 1110
Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon
the city {idem) - - - - 1375
The Pythian games instituted, it is said
by Sisyphus - - . . 1375
The reign of Bacchus, whose successors
are called Bacchidae, in remembrance
Syracuse - - - b. o. 732
Sea fight between the Corinthians and
Corcyreans - ... 664
Periander rules and encourages genius
and learning .... 629
Death of Periander - - . .585
The Corinthians form a republic - 582
War with the Corcyreans - - 439
The Corinthian war {which see) - - 395
of the equity of his reign - -935. A crocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus 242
The Corinthians invent ships called j The Roman ambassadors first appear
fnrewes; vessels consisting of three at Corinth - - - -228
benches of oars - - - 78G Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius
Theleates deposed, and the government j who sends to Italy the first fine paint-
of the Prytanes instituted: Auto- j ings there seen, they being part of the
menes is the first on whom this dig- j spoil {Livy) .... 145
nity is conferred - - - 757 ''
CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture,
aptly called by Scaniozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli-
cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it
is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c.
CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles
wore mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 395, by a
confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against
the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc-
tra, which sec.
CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who
having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. —
Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making
bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c, —
Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest
ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages.—
See Exodiis xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century,
by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation
of corn of v«hich wc have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its
importation into England, in 1G86.
CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " com'*
or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its
importation when corn should be 80.s. -per quarter," 1815. The "sliding-
scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, A])ril 29, 1842; act fixing
276 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COB
the duty on wheat at 45. until Feb. 1849, and after tliat at Is. per quarter,
passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws —
and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there-
. fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846.
CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at
Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was
introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation
of Henry IIL took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester,
October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the
crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John,
in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew
Paris. Rymer.
CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the
kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards
canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath,- nearly corresponding with that
now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The f^tes
given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor-
onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of
former times.
CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every
county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward
I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mal-
colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria,
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of
ilhiess. Aug. 22, 1843.
CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish
the rank of the nobiUty. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry
III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles ll.~Baker.
But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of
the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when
the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idein.
CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti-
quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from
Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep-
arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch.
CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized
by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and
members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in
law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Covjel. Corporations
were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari-
ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d.
1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them
to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths,
and conditions. — BlackstoTie.
CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cijrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this
island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists,
according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car-
thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans, 231 b. c. In modern times,
Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold
to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first
and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisone(Vin
the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be-
nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency
cos] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277
in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his
creditors, and died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel-street, Soho.
The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his
grave, in St. Anne's church. Dean-street : —
" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings.
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ;
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head,
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread."
The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans,
in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769.
The people acknowledged George III, of England for their king, June 17,
1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and he opened a parliament
in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was -elin-
quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the
French.
CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ot
Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a
long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution,
March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who
banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states-
general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg-
ularly convened.
CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who
was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809.
COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients,
and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre-
cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height-
ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes.
Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered
women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent,
and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint
more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on
cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau-
tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take
out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786.
COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition,
and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a
plane. — Sclden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the
earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record
of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep-
resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography
respectively.
COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,
Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys
and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste
phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions
of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body
of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in-
vincibly.
COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote
antiquity. Tlie costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and
graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm,
wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture,
and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, that
278
THE WORLDS PROGKESS.
[ COT
their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As relates to costume
worn on the stage, -^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who
erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited
to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles.
COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand; but
about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny
with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin-
ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of
machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton
invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac-
ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since
made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con-
nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that
more than one thousand millions sterling have be >n yielded by it to Great
Britain. Cotton mauufkcturers' utensils were prohibited from beine: export-
ed in 1774. — Haijdii.
HISTORY OF COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS.
The /oUowing brief items of the history of cotton, J'rovi 1730 to 1836, are taken from a South
Caroli?ia paper : —
1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first couon yarn 1803. First cotton factory built in New
in England by machinery " ' '
1735. The Dutch first export cotton from
Surinam.
1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected
at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ;
but not successful in its operations.
1749. The fly shuttle generally used in
Endand.
1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made
in England for the first time.
1761. Arkwright obtained tlie first patent
for the spinning frame, wliich he further
improved.
1768. The stocking frame applied by
Hammond to making of lace.
1773. A bill passed to prevent the export
of machinery used in cotton factories.
1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave.
1782. First import of raw cotton from
Brazil into England.
1782. Watt took out his patent for the
steam-engine.
1783. A bounty granted m England on the
export of certain cotton goods.
1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart-
wright — steam engines used in cotton fac-
tories.
1785. Cotton imported into England from
the United States.
1786. Bleaching first performed by the
agency of the oxymuriatic acid.
1787. First machinery to spin cotton put
in operation in France.
1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the
United States ; and upland cotton first cul-
tivated for use and export about this time.
1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the
first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket,
Rhode Island.
1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents
the cotton gin, which he patents.
1798. First mill and machinery for cotton
erected in Switzerland.
1799. Spinning by machinery introduced
into Saxony this year.
Hampshire.
1805. Power-looms successfully and widely
introduced into England.
18U7. The revolution in Spanish America
begins to furnish new markets for cotton
manufactures.
1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the
United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another
by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia.
1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa-
tented by .John IJurn.
1813. The India trade more free, and more
British manulactures sent thither.
1814. The power-loom introduced into the
United States ; first at Waltham.
1818. Average price of cotton 3^1 cents-
higher tlian since 1810, New method of
preparing s-ewing cotton by Mr. Holt.
1819. Extraordinary prices lor Alabama
cotton lands.
1820. Steam power first applied with suc-
cess extensively to lace manufactures.
1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected.
1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt
into Great Britain.
1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to
25 cents per pound.
1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented
in England by Roberts.
1827. American cotton manufactures first
exported to any considerable extent.
1829. Highest duty in the United States on
foreign cotton manufactures.
183(J. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced
a machine from the United States into Eng-
laml for the purpose of making cards.
1832. Duty on cotton goods imported into
the United States reduced; and in England
it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills,
to work them more than ten hours per daj,
or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; m
consequence they work at something else.
1834. Cotton at 17 cents,
1835. Extensive purchases madeof cottoi
lands by speculators and others.
18:36, Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents.
cou ]
DICTlOr«ARY OF DATES.
279
COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment
by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge,
after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans
during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William
III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's-
yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained
damage by fire. The librar}- was removed to the British Museum in 1753.
COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to
whom we arc indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi-
ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first
was a select council,, to wliich those only high in the king's confidence were
admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the
second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the
present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was
pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na-
tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to wliich quality and offices gave a right
to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin
of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the
term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar-
endon,— See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c.
COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable
Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils
(the list of which would make a volume^ either respected national churches
or ecclesiastical government. Sir Hams Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils.
50
Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d
Of the western bishops at Aries, in
France, to suppress the Donatists ;
three fathers of the English church
went over to attend it -
The first CEcumenical or General Ni-
cene, held at Nice, Constantiqe the
Great presided: Arius and Eusebius
condemned for heresy. This council
composed the Nicene Creed -
At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana-
sius was canvassed
The first held at Constantinople, when
the Arian heresy gained ground
At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which
lasted eighteen months
At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended
Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and
Constantine obliged them to sign a
new confession of faith
The second General at Constantinople ;
350 bishops attended, and pope Da-
masius presided
The third at Enhesus, when pope Ce-
lestine presitled
Fourth at Chalccdon ; the emperor Mar-
cian and his empress attended
The fifth at Constantinople, when pope
Vigilius presided
The sixth at Constantinople, when pope
Agatho presided
Authority of the six general councils re
established by Theodosius
Tho second Nicene council, seventh Ge
neral ; 350 bishops attended -
Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the
emperor Basil attended - - 869
The first Lateran, the ninth General ;
the right of investitures settled by
treaty net ween pope Calixtua II. and
the emperor Henry V. - -1122
314
325
335
- 337
359
381
431
451
553
680
- 715
787
The second Lateran. tenth General, In-
nocent II. presided ; the preservation
of the temporal ties of. ecclesiastics,
(he principal subject, which occa-
sioned the attendance of 1000 fa-
thers of the church - - a. d. 1 13^
The third Lateran, eleventh General;
held against schismatics - -1179
Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400
bishops and 1000 abbots attended ;
Innocent III. presided - - - 1215
X)t Lyons, the thirteenth General, under
pope Innocent IV. - - - 1243
Ot Lyons, the Iburteenth General, under
Gregory X. - - - - 1274
OfVienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth
General; Clement V. presided, and
the kings of France ana Arragon at-
tended. The order of the Knight
Templars suppressed - - -1311
Of Pisa, the sixteenth General ; Gre-
gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed,
and Alexander elected - - 1409
Of Constance, the seventeenth General ;
Martin V, is elected pope ; and John
Huss and Jerome of Prague con-
demned to be burnt - - -1414
Of Basil, (he eighteenth General - 1431
The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene-
ral, begun by Julius II. - - 1512
Continued under Leo X. for the sup-
pression of the Pragmatic sanction of
France, against the council of Fisa,
«fec. till - - - - - 1511
Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene-
ral council, styled (Ecumenical, as re-
garding the affairs of all the Chris-
tian world ; it was held to condemn
the doctrines of the reformers, Luther,
Zuinglius, and Calvin.-— ^166^ Lenglet 154"^
280 THE world's progress. [ GOV
COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly
of revolutionary France, consisting of 260 members, instituted at Paris, Nov.
1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a
Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St.
Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Si^yfes, consuls fro-
ttsoires. — See France.
COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion
were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward L, 1284. Coun-
sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William IIL 1696.
Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel,
6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836.
COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were
instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par-
liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See
Commons^ and Parliament.
COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and
Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does
not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of
Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are
said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800.
The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the
reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager-
ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d.
1463. — Henault.
COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Ai'eopa-
gitce. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272
B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other
countries.
COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high
constable was a judge, was called Curia Mditaris in the time of Henry IV.,
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to
prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these
countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in-
stitutions.
COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons
who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby
mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of
the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between
England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by
parliament, 14 Charles II., 16^2.
COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM or. The great show fair of Coventry owes its
origin to the following tradition : — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such
heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties,
importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her
riding naked through the city at raid-day. Her humanity induced her to
consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and
ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win-
dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to
curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead •, and has been
famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his eflSgy is shown
to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair
the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom<
cre] dictionary of dates. 281
panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her
limbs.
COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security
against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general
in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the
t«ats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re-
warded by parliament with the munificent grant of £10,000, June 2, 1802. —
See Inoculation^ Small-Pox, Vaccination.
CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with
the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles Xll.
in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one
side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel-
led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to
the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1816. Occu-
pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831.
Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in-
corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland.
CRANES. They are of very early date, for tlie engines of Archimedes may
be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his,
220 B. c.—Livy.
CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German,
started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol-
lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems
to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all
countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The
science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many diflfer-
ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind.
CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng-
lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati-
mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555i5 and Cran-
mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in-
duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a
paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the
stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand,
with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before
the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand !"
Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first
martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!"
CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and
twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said
some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680.
It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used
for mourning.
CRAYONS. They were known in France before a. d. 1422— improved by
L'Oriot, 1748.
CREATION OP THK WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy.
4004 B. c. Josei)hus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees
with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old
Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation :
some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia-
logue entitled Crilias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried
in the ocean about 90<X) years before the age in which he Wrote. The Chi-
nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of
years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal-
282 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ CRl
deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000
years.
CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found
convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting
before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at
a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right
time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at
4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud
make it 5344 ; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it
vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the
Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor-
rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener-
ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text.
CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while
after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally int6 public worship
in the .Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church.
This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. Tlie
Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in
A. D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about
340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds.
CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed-
ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip,
king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs
ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of
Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French
nobles, together with 30.000 private men, were slain, wiiile the loss of the
English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich
feathers, with the motto '• Ich Dien" in English, " I serve ;" and in memory
of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng-
land.— Froissart, Carte, Huvie.
CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies
by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of
crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen-
tations of Richai'd I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume
of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns
above their helmets ; that of Richard IL, 1377, was surmounted by a lion
on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well
on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses.
CRETE. Now Candia, which see. This island was once famous for its hundred
cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015
B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won-
ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It
was conquered by the Saracens, a, d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed
into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the
Turks, in im%.~ Priestley.
CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, " tx
one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub-
sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth
have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and
every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi-
nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and,
as an almost necessary consequence, into crime."' A comparative view of
foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and
ignorance on the great mass of the pojjulation. In North America pauper-
ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre
CRO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283
meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several ,
states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly
rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated,
are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark-
able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ-
ence is painfully exemplified : —
Scotland. England. Ireland.
Instruction to the people - - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35
Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - I in 920 - 1 in 468
There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several
acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti-
gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law
of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and
revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest,
passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by
statute 4 William IV., 1834. See Executions, Hangings Triah, &c. — Haydn.
CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersoncsus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193.
The Genoese were expelled by the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were
tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large -army, took
possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following
year; and secured to them in 1791.
CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus
were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra-
velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian
religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main-
tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers; but the governor of the
town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On
this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them
as their tutelar saints.
CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class
were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern
times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period-
ical criticism, as it is now known. It was originated by Dennis de Sallo,
ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published
at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work
of this kind in England, was called the Review of Danid Defoe (the term
being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Waves of Litera-
litre was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly
Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in
England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the
Edinburgh Revievj, in 1802; and London^ Quarterly in 1809. The American
Revievj, established in N. Y. 1799, w\as the first Review in the U. S. The
North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818 ; the Ameri-
can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the Neiv York Review, by
Prof C. S. Henr^, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See
Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English
courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought
by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de-
termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however
sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c.
CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and
Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware,
many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery,
of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italyj
about A. D. 1310; and it is still called /^y^ /tee in French. See Earthenware.
284 THE world's PKOGUESS. [ CUL
CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in tlie holy story
of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden, The first Ro-
man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet
tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En-
gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by
pope Damasius IL, in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown,
1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form-
ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown
with two circles. — RainaldL
CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians,
Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on
account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other
tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap-
padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovei-ed among the prison-
ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive,
and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year
of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan-
tine, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Pu7iishm£nt of.
("RUSADES, OR Holy Wars, (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris-
tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries,
called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter
the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted
the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy
Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban IL that infidels should be in
possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul-
gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at
Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten-
tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a
general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published ; an army of 300,-
000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The
holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of
Crois^s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's
will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the
end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind,
cost the lives of 2.000,000 of men. — Voltaire.
CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered
by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor-
gan took Havana in 1669.' See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by
admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord
Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of
Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution,
defeated May, 1860.
CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read
of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Fe-
brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng^ ish
feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe
extremity of the middle finger. — Calmet.
(*0CUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and
'Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the
poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets.
It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1638.
CULLODEN, Battle of. In which the English, under William duke of Cum-
berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the
last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 174G. The Scots lost 2600 men
CYc]
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285
in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit,
while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac-
tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless
inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately
after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued
wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,-
000^. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were
constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix,
and died at Rome, in 1788.
CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, tho
French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with
the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It
was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a
British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814.
CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This wa,s a Norman institu-
tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I , a. d. 1068. On the
ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles
were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was
abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100.
CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England
1533. The hawthorn currant-tree {Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada
in 1705.
CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con-
sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands
opposed to lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is
derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law,
and forty years in ecclesiastical cases.
CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel-
red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab-
lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith,
for 20,000^. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stcnve. They were
farmed by Charles II. for 390,000Z. in the year IQm.—Davenant.
In 1748 they amounted to - je2,000,000
In 1808 ditto - - 9,973,240
In 1823 ditto - - - 11,498,762
In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540,323
In 1835 ditto - - - 18,612,906
In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296
In 1530 they amounted to • - jei4,000
In 1592 ditto - - - 50,000
In 1614 ditto - - 148,000
In 1622 ditto - . • 168,000
In 1642 ditto - - 500,000
In 1720 ditto - • - 1,555,600
The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool,
M. ; on every last of hides, Qd. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals
of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified
from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 Greorge
III., 1782. See Revenue.
CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in thk UNITED STATES. The amounts collected
were, in
1820 . • $15,005,612
1825 - - - 20,098,714
1830 - . 21,922,391
1835 - . - 19,391,311
1840 - - 13,499,940
CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the
week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen
lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The
cycle of Jupiter is sixty years or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the
time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 53*2 years, by
Victorius a.d. 463. — Blair.
1789-91
- $4,399,473
1800 ^
- 9,080,938
1805
12,936,487
1810 -
. 8,583,309
1815 -
- 7,282,&42
1845 - - $27,528,113
1846 - . . 26,712,668
1847 - - 23,747,864
ISiS - - - 31,757,070
See Tariff.
286 THE world's progress. [ DAO
CYCLOPuEDIA.—See Encyclopcedia.
CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record.
It was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form,
but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru-
ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was
used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. The
fijstivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory-
bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c.
CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c. — Diog,
Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso-
phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all
sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did
all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without
blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on
the ground. — Diog. Laert.
CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love
and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the
time of Cyrus, who subdued them ; it ranked among the proconsular pro-
vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but
recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of
England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. —
Priestley.
CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus iha Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of
the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme
good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual
kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure,
and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages.
— Laer. Ar. Cicero.
CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristasus, who was the chief of the
colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap-
olis, on account of its live towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol-
lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97
B. c. It is now a desert, — Priestley.
CZAR. From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia.
Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and
made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and
returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King).
— Aspiii's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian
Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem.
D.
DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of
Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon
thin cot)per plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac-
tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An
apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same
time by M. Niepc^, and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon-
don: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger
Bacon. By means of the Talbotype. a recent improvement upon the above
process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im-
portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the
French government that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6000
francs.
DAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287
DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It
is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians,
Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex-
ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the
Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane
in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu-
lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the
gospel, about a. d. 50. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic.
DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus,
and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being
raised above tlie groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the
Dutch and Flemish weavers; and the manufacture was brought to England
by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between
the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson.
DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean i)hi]osophers. When Damon was con-
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to
go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the appoint-
ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his
engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared,
and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution; but at
this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was
so struck with the iidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence,
and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c.
DANCING. The dance to the measure of time'^vas invented by the Curetes
1534 B. c. — Euscbius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to
their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on
the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced
into England from Italy a. d. 1511. In modern times, the French were the
first who introduced ballHs analogues in their musical dramas. The country
dance {contrc-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known.
— Spelmaii.
DANES, Invasions op the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to
England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon
Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and
ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy
in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor-
mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912.
DANTZIC. A commercial city in a, d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord-
ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king
of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the
Frencli after a siege of four months. May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til-
sit, it was restored to its former independence, under the protection of
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and after
a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814, By the treaty of Paris.
it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to
the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10 000 head of cattle
and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9.
1829.
DARDANELLES. Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called
Sestos, seated !n Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding
the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor
Mahomet IV.. in 1659, and were nnmed Dardanelles from the contiguouj
tovn of Dardanus. Tlic gallant <.'x;)]oit of forcing th«' passage of the Dar-
288 THE world's progress. [ DEA
.danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John
Duckworth, Feb. 19, ISO*! ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them,
which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2,
following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone,
each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships.
DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from
the province of Dauphin^, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert H.
to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne
should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley,
DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose
name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585.
DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun-
set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced
at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the
present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks
strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all
other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par-
tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome,
and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks.
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is
the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of
Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math.
DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the
institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a
long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The
original deacons were Philip, Stephen. Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme-
nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St.
Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13.
DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb
was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570.
Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr.
Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first
regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in
Edinburgh in 1773.
DEAF and dumb, BUND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States.
In 1840 there were 6 916 blind persons, or 1 in 2 467 of the population;
7,659 deaf and dumb or 1 in 2 228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979.
There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about
2,B40 patients.
Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have
promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the
United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe, of
Boston ; Rev, T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford.
DEATH, Punishment of. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish-
ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stowe. The most eulogized
heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered
on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture
many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the
fate of Mithridates. an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia;
see also Rav iliac ; Boiling to Death ; Burning to Death. &c. Maurice, the
son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first
execution in that manner in England 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment
DEL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289
of <ieath was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9,
in other cases 1832, for forg-ery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases
of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank-
fort, same day, August 4, 1848.
DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the
year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year in
March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month,
in 713 B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the
year.
DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go-
vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — Livy.
The decern viral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the
attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished,
the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con-
suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia.
DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the
earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is
that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert,
the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English
tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be
used in all law-suits in May, 1731.
DEFENDER of the FAITH. Fldci Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X.
on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Catholicce, and against Luther,
who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave
him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs
of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521.
DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded
as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first
degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude
was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west-
ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations
have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ;
and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green-
wich. See Latitude, Longitude^ and the various Collegiate degrees.
DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six-
teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to
disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation
than that of Atheism. — Virofs Instruction C/iretwnne, 1563. Deism is a
rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light
of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and
an after state of punishments and rewards: it is sometimes called free-think-
ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron
of Cherbury, in 1624, The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal,
Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin.
DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1656 by the
Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in
1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm.
Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775.
This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in
the struggle, She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous
290 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ DB»
vote iu convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population,— 1790, 59,094; 1840, 78,086 ;
including 2,605 slaves.
DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : it is now in decay, but
contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah
invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine
followed: 100 000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to
the amount of 62,000,000Z. sterling was said to be collected.
DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of
Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons,
1263 B. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came
to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem-
ple was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the
Alcmaeonidae, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered
by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car-
ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning
the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c d Delphi
being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoy.
DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the
world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark
rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow-
ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following
are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales.
Septuagint b
c. 3246
Persian -
B. c. 3ia3
Jackson
3170
Hindoo -
-3102
Hales .
- 3155
Samaritan
- -2998
Josephus -
3146
Howard -
- 2698
Playfair - b. c. 2352
Usher - - 2348
English Bible -2.^8
Marsham - - 2344
Petavius - b. c. ^S29
Strauchuis - 2293
Hebrew - - 2288
Vulgar Jewish 2104
Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction
(!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built
to guard against the calamity ; but the season happened to be a very fine
dry one, a. d. 1524.
DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according
to Eusebi'us. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the
general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely
a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose
course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and
some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus.
DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun-
dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200. years ; it
occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. Buffon
thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from
the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean.
DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were
taken by the British, 1796, but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara
and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and
commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies.
DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri
and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were
defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the
Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from
Dan^ the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi
tying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan.
DEN 1
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
291
DENMARK, contimied.
Reign of Sciold, first king -B.C. 60
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings
to the time of Ra^or Lodbrog - a. d. 750
[Ragnor is killed m an attempt to in-
vade Englandj and for more tnan 200
years from this time the Danes were
a terror to the northern nations of Eu-
rope, and at length conquering all
England. See Danes. ^
Reign of Canute the Great - - 1014
Reien of Waldemar the Great • - 1157
Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail,
makes immense conquests - - 1223
Gothland conquered - - - 1347
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are
united into one kingdom - - 1397
Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414
The nations reunited - - - 1439
Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440
Accession of Christian I., from whom
the present royal family springs - 1448
Christian II. is deposed, and the inde-
pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523
Lutheranism established by Christian
III. 1536
Danish East India Company established
by Christian IV. - - - - 1612
Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro-
testant league ... - 1629
Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades
Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and
makes large conquests - - 1658
The crown made hereditary and abso-
lute 1660
Frederick IV. takes Ilolstein, Sleswick,
Tonningen, and Stralsund; reduces
Weismar, and drives the Swedes out
of Norway - - - 1716 e; sey.
Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which
consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the
university, and 4 colleges - - 1728
The peaceful reign of Christian VI.,
who promotes the happiness of his
subjects .... 1730
Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud-
denly confines his queen, Caroline
Matilda, sister of George III. who is
afterwards banished. See ZeZ/ Jan. 18, 1772
The counts Struensee and Brandt are
seized at the same time, on the charge
of a criminal intercourse with the
queen ; and the former confessing to
avoid the torture, both are beheaded
for high treason - April 28, 1775^
The queen Caroline Matilda dies at
Zell - . - May 10. 1775
Christian VII. becomes deranged, and
prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784
One-fourth of Copenhagen is destroyed
by fire - - - • June 9. 1795
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard
Copenhagen, and engage the Danish
fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of
the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill-
ed. The Confederacy of the North
(see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis-
solved - - - April 2, 1801
Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart
bombard Copenhagen, and seize the
Dani.sh fleet of 18 ships of the line, 15
U gates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807
Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to
Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814
Commercial treaty with England - 1824
Frederick bestows a new constitution
on his kingdom - - - 1831
A new constftution offered by Christian
VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848
Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de-
mand separation from Denmark
March, 1818
The king grants freedom of the press
and of public meetings - March, 1848
Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re-
volt and join the great German na-
tion - - - March 26, 1848
Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ-
izes the Grand Duchy of Posen
March 26, 1848
Danes victorious over the Germans,
April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswig
April 23, 1848
Truce agreed upon (provisional govern-
ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean-
while) - - - July 10, 1848
Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848
(See Copenhagen.)
KINGS OF DENMARK.
l714
750
770
801
809
811
812
814
849
a56
858
873
915
920
925
928
930
935
980
Gormo I.
Ragnor Lodbrog.
Sigefrid.
Godefrid.
Glaus I.
Hemming.
Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight.
Harold and llegner; the latter made
prisoner in Ireland, and died in a
dungeon there.
Siward II. deposed.
Eric ; killed in battle.
Eric II.
Canute I.
Frothon.
Gormo II.
Harold.
Hardi Canute.
Gormo III.
Harold III.
Suenon.
1014 Canute II. the Great.
1036 Hardicanute II.
1041 Magnus I.
1048 Suenon II.
1079 Harold IV.
lOSO Canute III. assassinated.
1086 Glaus II.
1097 Eric III.
1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick.
1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen.
11.38 Eric V.
1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemai
for assassinating prince Canute.
1157 Waldemar the Great.
1182 Canute V.
1202 Waldemar II
1240 Eric VI.
1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition agaicsi
the Prisons.
1252 Christopher I., jioisoned by the bishop
of Arhus.
292
THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS.
[0IA
1523 Frederick.
1534 Christian III.
1559 Frederick II.
1588 Christian IV.
1648 Frederick III.
1670 Christian V.
1699 Frederick IV.
1730 Christian VI.
1746 Frederick V.
1766 Christian VII,
1808 Frederic VI.
1839 Christian Vni. ilied Jan. 20, 184a
DENMARK, continued.
1259 Edc VII. assassinated.
1286 Eric VIII.
1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of
seven years.)
1340 Waldemar III.
1375 Olaus III.
1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and
Norway.
1411 Eric IX., abdicated.
1439 Christopher III.
1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh.
1481 John.
1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a
dimgeon, where he died.
DENIS, St. An ancient town of France, six miles Irom Paris to the nortli-
ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — famous for
its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolution ; the latter
desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place o/
sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613.
" DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the
policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition
of *' The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut-
temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at
present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate
those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at
Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty
crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as-
tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and
lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity
of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police
against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great
number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which
they were embellished w^as supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously
adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he
would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned
in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing.
DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and
which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or
wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck.
Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. —
TUlemont.
DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the
sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius
Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times
of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a gun-dial.
They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet.
DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the
mine of Sumbulpour was the first known ; and where the mines of Golconda
were discoverd in 1684. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds.
The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond,
weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal,
and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil-
lions j by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated
to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400,000/. The diamond
called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of Cabul, was
the most superb gem ever seen; it was of the finest water, and the size ot
die]
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293
an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great dia-
mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr.,
troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104,166Z. besides an annuity
for life, to the owner, of 1041Z. which was refused ; but it was afterwards
sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, with-
out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth-
day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed
136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France
for 125,000Z. in 1720.
1)1 ANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world,
built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect
was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing
this temple, whose riches were immense. It w:^s 425 feet long, 225 broad,
and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 160 tons
of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It was set on tire on the
night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus,
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him
to destroy so magnificent an edifice, w^as the desire of transmitting his name
to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the
Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256 U/iiv. Hist.
DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in-
stituted 498 B, c. when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap-
pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the
Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J.
Caesar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion
of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to
exist in Rome, 44 b. c.
DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing
about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who
lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps
the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one
in eight languages, about a. d. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon HeptagMton
was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub-
lished in 1696, "the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to
think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle
of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The ^reat dictionary of
the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared m 1755. Francis
Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768; and from
this p5tiod numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature.
Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two
quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re-
printed in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous
abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since been published.
See Encyclopedia.
DIET OP THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of f\is empire
may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princefs undi* this name.
The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of e.ectors, the
college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with
the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See. Golden Bull. Diets otherwise
constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The
diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179.
The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was
held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1629;
294 THE world's TROGIiESS. | DIP
and the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German
princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank-
fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con-
solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany.
DIEU £:T MON droit, "God and my right." This was the parole of
the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors,
in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ;
and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et mon droit "
the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained,
A. D. 1198. — Rymer^s Fonder a.
DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared
by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Orat.
Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of
eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi-
nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the
civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a fif. — Pardon.
DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were
at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantino, a. d. 323 ; but
Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long
before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris-
diction are coeval with Christianity; there are twenty-four dioceses, of
which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York.
DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian
writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and
is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on
vphich Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284.
It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris-
tians in the reign of Diocletian.
DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an
object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29,
1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead
of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture
at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama
and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and
in the completeness of the illusion.
DIPLOMACY OF THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to
Great Britain and France.
GREAT BRITAIN.
1783 John Adams.
1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner.
1792 Thomas Pinckney, ol'S. C, min. plen.
1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do.
1796 Rufus King, do. do.
1803 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly,
1806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. S in 1806.
1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do.
1815 John Quincy Adamsi Mass. do.
1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do.
1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do.
1828 James Barbour, Va. do.
1830 Louis McLane, Del. do.
1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do.
1832 Aaror. Vail, charge d'affaires.
PRANCE.
1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'rs.
1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires.
1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen.
1799 James Munroe, Va. do.
1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ? .
1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, \ ^^^
1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry,
and W. Vans Murray, do.
1801 James A. Bayard, Del. i b.
1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. f o.
1804 John Armstrong, do. ao.
1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. do.
1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. do.
1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do.
1823 James Brown, La. io.
*fS36 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. ' 1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do.
1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. i 1&33 Edward Livingston, La. do.
1845 Louis McLane, Md. , do. j 1836 I^ewis Cass, Midi. rb.
1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 1 1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. do.
1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. i 1849 W. C. Rives, Va. do.
DIVJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 296
DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England
at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par-
liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the
ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres-
sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given,
which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no
form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to
make any responses, except Avien. The Directory was established by an
ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor.
DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux-
embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November
1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five
members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An-
cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, whv;,
with Cambac^r^s and Si6y6s, became the ruling power of France, the three
governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799.
DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in
the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish
models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with
the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious
worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza-
beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in
those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was
established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon-
don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis-
senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters
from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 Greorge IV.
c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of
the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces-
sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for
certain offices, &c. was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli-
orating eifect have been since passed.
DIVINATION. In the Scriptures wo find mention made of different kinds of
divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re-
tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers,
augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc-
trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary
opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted
by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augurij, Witchcraft, d^c.
DIVING-J3ELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b. c.
The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been
used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish
Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was,
it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground
at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force
down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in
Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which
was sunk off Portsmouth iii 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-
bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed
in sub-marine surveys. The first diymg-belle was the wife of Captain Mor-
ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago.
DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti-
cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car-
vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased,
that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted
J^6 mE wokld's progress. L dog
to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a.d. 1539. The bill to
prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in
IX)CKS OP LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con-
structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon-
don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the
principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in
July 1799; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug.
27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them,
decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London
docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805.
The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803,
and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks
was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until
they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828.
DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church
was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil. Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos-
tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the
Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title
of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England,
8 Jobn, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the
time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it
is Said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d. 725.
See Collegiate Degrees.
DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law
residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col-
lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors'
Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de-
stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the
old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces,
bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See
article Civil Law.
DOG. The chien de herger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole
race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree,"
assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of
instmct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in
Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken
from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel,
landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned
to Vienna.
DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end
on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard
the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause
of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed
as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies
in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and
later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same
rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton.
DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a
• Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ;
ftnd they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that
a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with
its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to our
globe.
dor] dictionary of dates. 297
prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against
their count, and chose a doge from among th«ir nobility, and became an
aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying
the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was
observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis-
pensed with. See Adriatic.
DOMINGrO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The
city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and
nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791.
Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French
colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died
in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama-
tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex-
ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2600 were butchered in one day, March 29,
1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in
which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do-
mingo., acknowledged by France, in April, 1825.
DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This
island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the
subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur-
ricane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently
occurred.
DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days
of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as
by thelirst seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one
of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin
on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is
G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter
call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the
first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap
years count two letters.
DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni-
versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars,
and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1216 ; and
the order was confirmed by a bull of HonoriusIIl. in 1216, under St. Austin's
rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation
of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they
erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called
Blackfriars.
DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Jiidiciarius vel Censualis
Ans^liec. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign
of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register
whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this books
the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still
decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible,
consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of
England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin-
ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's-
day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Camden. The taxes were
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1622, when a more accu-
rate surve}' was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day
book.
DORIC Ordkr op Architkcturk. The most ancient of the five, the invention
of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the ftame to
13*
298 THE world's progress. l^DRA
the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesut} took
place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies
into different places, which afterwards hore the same name as their native
country.
DORl . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in
the breaking down of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000
persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul-
lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300
villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for
ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot-
estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent
from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the
differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi-
pally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the
tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema.
DOTJAY, IN France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who
founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay
was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was
taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710 ; and retaken by the "French
next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of thv Bible,
which" continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv.essive
popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version
authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes
of Catholic divines.
DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a
code of laws, which, 013 account of their severity, were said to be written
in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as
murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could
not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. —
Sigonius de Re-pub. Athen.
DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth,
No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many
perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral
under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict
with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over
the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene-
rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the
common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents
, to Indian chiefs. — Stowe. Rapin.
DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the
Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon,
on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced
556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis,
on a wagon, 636 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra-
gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this 'year, and was rewarded with a
goat, 536 B. c. — Pli7iij. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in-
troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun-
dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c.
DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion
of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and
C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti-
tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new.
Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c.
Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and
©ROJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299
afterwards plays were represented by Livius Androiiicus, who, abandoning
satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — lAvy.
Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ-
ent performers ; he danced himselfj^ and gave the singing to a younger
exhibit6r. — Livy.
DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of
minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton.
Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin
of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the
church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 364, on the Passion
of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to
have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not
clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that
" London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa-
tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries
were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the
parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego-
rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual
characters were introduced in Henry Vll.'s reign. The first regular drama
acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre-
sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect
in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England
was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester,
to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak-
speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in
1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two
companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's
and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts.
DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar-
zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27,
1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi-
tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an
error in the conduct of i^^eneral Vandamme. They were defeated with
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia; but Vandamme
pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all
his staff' made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal
wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia.
DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of
Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe.
Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered,
and embroidered with pearis. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and
pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches,
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and
buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with
precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600/, ; and he had a suit
of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds,
rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could
afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to
shake a few oft' on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the
pic^ers-up, who were generally Ics Dames de la Cour.
DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning^ persons
were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to
have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the
fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies
300 THE world's progress. [dur
have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane
Society in England is very appropriate : — Lateat scintUlula forsan — a small
spark may lurk unseen.
DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons,
who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted
as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with
supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families,
that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro-
cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the
administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and
supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed
Caesar's first landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending
the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau-
linue, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Bowlarid's
Mona Antiqua.
DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb.
" Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice
of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken-
ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity.
In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747.
Constantino, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death.
He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed
from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the
commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws.
DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d. 140.
DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First
struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Du Cange. Coined by Robert, king of
Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John-
son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 45. 6^?., and that of
the gold 95. 6^. — Pardon.
DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com-
bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character,
took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France,
1306. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I.
to the emperor Charles V., 1527. The fight with small swords was intro-
duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should
be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling
was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, d^c. As
many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli-
macteric.— Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in
which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases
both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen-
tence of the law. — Hamilton.
DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In
England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes,
duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of
Edward HI., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black
Prince, by the style ^f duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was
created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1386. The
first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David,
prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to
the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398.
DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and
immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged
EAR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 30 1
the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night ;
and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope
Pius V. in 1569.
DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John
Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed-
ward L, fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under
Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650.
DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and
French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year
of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles 11. for 500,000^. to
Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for-
tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the
basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
DUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal
Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle
between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber-
land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III.,
Avhose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who
was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in
Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub-
ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama.
DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at
Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen
Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland,
who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to
pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou-
sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346.
DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing
and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their
manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England
for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries
in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the
7iorth''' (of England) 1628.
E.
EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the
Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and
sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a
spear; -they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When
Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added
the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of
Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im-
perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
It is also the national emblem of the United States of America.
EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages
the hischest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard
II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They
had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the
sheriff" 's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their
title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or
shire for his earldom. Upon tlie increase of earls their revenue ceased, and
their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute foi
king.
302
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
EAB
EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of
Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring an
arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the
sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all
towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round
the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel-
lan's, in 1619. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576.
The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to
be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis-
covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe.
EARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient
nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c.
The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent
ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staftbrdshire was extended to
a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur-
poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a
very important branch of commerce, botli foreign and domestic. See
China. — Porcelain.
EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed ^v'ith
any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro-
duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the
vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Dlog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes,
and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which
have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters,
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu-
men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50,
when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr.
Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to
suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ouglit to be attributed not to vapors
or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity.
These principles at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with-
out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has
been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how-
ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into
steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which
occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the
most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from
the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all
that have occurred : —
One which made the peninsula of
EuboEa an island - - b. c. 425
Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus,
swallowed up ... 372
One at Rome, when, in obedience to
an oracle, M. Curiiuf?, armed and
mounted on a stately horse, leaped
into the dreadful chasm it occasion-
ed (Liry) - - - - 358
Duras, in Greece, buried with all its
inhabitants ; and twelve cities in
Campania also buried - - 345
Lysimachia totally buried, with all its
inhabitants - - - - 283
Awful one in Asia, which overturned
twelve cities - - - a. d. 17
One accompanied by the eruption of
Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and
Herculaneum buried - 79
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a id
two in Galatia, overturned - - 107
114
Antioch destroyed - - a. d.
Nicomedia, Cajsarea, and Nicea in
Bithynia, overturned
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150
cities and towns damaged. -
Nicomedia again demolished, and its
inhabitants buried in its ruins - iJ&8
One felt by nearly the whole world - 543
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroy-
ed, and thousands perished -
In Africa ; many cities overturned
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and
Asia ; more than 500 cities were de-
stroyed, and the loss of life surpass-
ed all calculation
In France, Germany, and Italy
Constantinople overturned, and all
Greece shaken - - - 936
One felt throughout England - • 1089
One at Antioch; many towns destroy-
126
357
558
560
742
801
EAS]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
303
EARTHQUAKES, continued.
ed : among them, Mariseum and Ma-
mistria - - - a. d. 1114
Catania in Sicily overturned, and
15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137
One severely felt at Lincoln - -1142
At Calabria, when one of its cities and
all its inhabitants were overwhelm-
ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1185
One again felt throughout England - 1274
At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit-
ants perished - . . . 1456
One lelt in London : part of St. Paul's
and the Temple clunchcs fell - 1580
In Japan, several cities made ruins,
and thousands perished - - 1596
Awful one nt Calabria - - - 1638
One in China, when 300,000 persons
were buried in Pekin alone - - 16G2
One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690
One at Jamaica, which totally destroy-
ed Port Royal, whose houses were
ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 3(X)
persons perished - - - 1692
One in Sicily, which overturned 54
cities and towns, and 300 villaffes.
Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabit-,
ants, not a trace remained; more
than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693
Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000
persons perished - - - 1726
Again in China; and 100,000 people
swallowed up at Pekin - • 1731
One in Hungary, which turned a
mountain round - - - 1736
Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000
persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746
One at Palermo, which swallowed up
a convent : but the monks escaped 1740
In London, the inhabitants terrified by
a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750
Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750
Adrianople nearly overwhelmed
At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and
40,000 persons swallowed up
Quito destroyed - - April,
Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about ,
eight minutes most of the houses,
and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants,
were swallowed up, and whole streets
buried. The cities of Coimbra,
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread-
fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over-
turned. In Spain, a large part of
Malaga became ruins. One half of
Fez, m Morocco, was destroyed, and
more than 12,000 Ara])s perished
there. Above half of the island of
Madeira became waste : and 2,000
houses in the island of Meteline, in
the Archipelago, were overthrown ;
this awful earthquake extended 5000
miles, even to Scofl.-ind Nov. 1,
One in Syria extended over 10,000
square miles : Balbec destroyed
One at Martinico, when 1600 persons
lost their lives - - Aug.
At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in-
habitants, was swallowed up Dec.
1752
1754
1755
17d4
1789
1791
1791
1794
179J
180-)
1804
- 1805
1810
1612
A destructive one at Smyrna . a. D 1778
At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down,
and multitudes buried - - 1780
One which overthrew Messina and a
number of towns in Italy and Sicily :
40,000 persons perished - - 1783
Archindschan wholly destroyedj and
12,000 persons buried in its rums - ;
At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening
of the earth swallowed up many
houses and 1000 persons - Sept. '
Another fatal one in Sicily
One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing
forth its flames overwhelmed the city
of Torre del Greco
In Turkey, where, in three towns,
10,000 persons lost their lives
The whole country between Santa Fe
and Panama destroyed, includingthe
cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of
whose people were, in one second,
hurled into eternity -
One at Constantinople, which destroy-
ed the royal palace and an immen-
sity of buildings, and extended into
Romania and Wallachia. - - '
A violent one felt in Holland - Jan.
In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000
persons lost their lives - - 1
At the Azores: a village of St. Mi-
chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling
water appeared in its place - Aug
Awful one at Caraccas (which see)
Several felt throughout India. The
district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons
were buried with it - - June 1819
In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many
other towns ; great damage sustain-
ed, and thousands perished - - 1819
One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826
One in Spain, which devastated Mur-
cia, and numerous villages; 6000
persons perished - March 21, 1829
In the ducliy of Parma | no less than
40 shocks were experienced at Bor-
gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many
houses were thrown down, and not a
chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834
In many cities of Southern Syria, by
which hundreds of houses were
thrown down, and thousands of the
inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337
At Martinique, by which nearly half
of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly
700 persons killed, and the whole
island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839
At Ternate : the island made a waste,
almost every house destroyed, and
thousands of the inhabitants lose
their lives - - Feb. 14, 1?K»
Awful and destructive earthquake at
Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts
of Armenia 3137 houses were over-
thrown, and several hundred persons
perished - - July 2, 1840
Great earthquake at Zante, where
many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840
EASTER So called in England from the Saxon g^oddess Eostre. The festival
of Easter was instituted about ^.d. 68; the day for the observance of il
was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council
304
THE world's progress.
£CL
of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian
world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first lull moon that occurs after
the 21st of March.
EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the
defeat and death of Constantino XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453.
Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan-
tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by
assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor,
seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the
enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were
massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the
conqueror ; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com-
menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tatrular Views,
in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey.
ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and
ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066.
The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy,
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be-
nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery,
probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone.
ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Roine. In
A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it
into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove
into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the
same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800,
cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of
Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This
power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his
temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ;
but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq.
ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogeiici, and Philalethes,
or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they
chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex-
andria, about A. D. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian
church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of
the doctrine of the Christian.
ECLIPSES. The theo-y of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120
B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to
be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during
its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c.
at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with
accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary
eclipses of the sun and moon : —
OP THE SUN.
That predicted by Thales ; observed at
Sardis (JP/my,/?6. ii.) - b. c.
One at Athens {Thucydides, lib. iv.) -
Total one ; three days' supplication de-
creed at Rome {Livy)
One general at the death of Jesus Christ
(Josephus) - - - A. D.
One at Rome, causing a total darkness
at noon-day {Livy) - - - 291
One observed at Constantinople - 968
In France, when it was dark at noon-
day (Dm Fresnoy) - June 29, 1033
585
424
33
In England, where it occasioned a total
da.rkness (Wm. Malmsb.} - -1140
Again ; the stars visible at ten in the
morning (Cawrfen) - June 23, 1191
The true sun, and the appearance of
another, so that astronomers alone
could distinguish the difference by
their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) - 1191
Again ; total darkness ensued {idem) - 1331
A total one ; the darkness so great that
the stars shone, and the birds went to
roost at noon(Oldmixon's Annals of
Geo. I.) - - April ^, 1715
EDU J DICTIONARY OF DATKS 305
Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) - 219
One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius
Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) . - 168
One terrified the Roman troops and
quelled their revolt ( Tacitua) a. d. 14
ECLIPSES, continued.
Remarkable one, central and annular
in tlie interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820
OP THE MOON.
The first, observed by the Chaldeans at
Babvlon (JPtoUmy^ lib. iv.) - b. c. 721
A total one, observed at Sardis ( Thu-
cydidesjlib. vii.) - - - 413
The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian,
336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of
the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander,
who died 323 b. c.
EDEN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi-
tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some
in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in
Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts
that it was in Sudermania 1 Several authorities concur in placing it in a
peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below
the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emj)tied themselves into it, about
27*^ N. lat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may
have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden
extended into Armenia. — Calmct. Tlie Almighty constructed Eden with a
view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good
for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. —
Genesis ii. 8, 9.
EDGEHILL, Battt>k of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and
the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ;
Charles I. was j)ersonally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded
the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642.
EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of
France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re-
voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to
France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000
industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet
remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued
the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they
excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An-
derson^ s Orig. of English Commerce.
EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were
two eddies at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public
and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ;
they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar-
kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and
treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties
of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in
many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon.
EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest
cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records. Dun Edin,
signifying the '• hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin,
king of Northumbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected
it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of
the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by
Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance,
standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before
the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength.
306
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[egy
EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In-
struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New
York, Oct. 20, 1830.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000Z. for national education, pro-
posed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9,
and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the
grant, July 11, 1839.
EGALIT6. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the
infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the
abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death ol'
Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He
was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793.
EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the
son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ;
it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest-
ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The
famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, m 1171. Sehni
I., emperor of the Turks, took Eg3^pt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys
till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French,
under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British,
and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey^ for modern
events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq.
Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) b. c. 2188 couniiy, hitherto called Mizraim, is
Egypt made four kingdoms, -u/z. ; Up- .. . -. ,^...
Ser Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, aud
[emphis (Abbe Lenglet.^ Blair) ■ 212G
Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122
Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) - 21 11
Osymandyas, the first warlike king,
passes mto Asia, conquers Bactria,
and causes his exploits to be repre-
sented in sculpture and painting
( Usher, Lenglet) - - - 2100
The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt
and Ijold it 260 years ( Usher) - 2080
The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938
The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt
to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921
Syphoas introduces the use of the com-
mon letters ( Usher) - - - 1891
Memnon invents the Egyptian letters
(Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822
Amenophis I. is acknowledged the
kin^ of all Egypt (Lenglet) - • 1821
Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt
as a slave (Lenglet) - - - 17'^
He interprets the king's dreams - 1715
His father and brethren settle here - 1706
Sesostris reigns ; he exiemls his do-
minion by conquest over Arabia,
Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng-
let)* 1618
Settlement of the Etliiopians (Blair) 1615
Rampses, who imposed on his sub-
jects the building of walls and pyra-
mids, and othe r labors, dies ( Lenglet) 1492
Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the
Red Sea, with all his army (Le?iglet^
Blair) M92
Reign of Egyptus, from whom the
now called Egypt (Blair) - b. o. 1485
Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the
Greeks) who had the faculty of as-
suming whatever form he pleased,
as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water,
tire 1189
[These fictions were probably intend-
ed to mark the profound policy of
this king, who was eminent for his
wisdom, by which his dominion
flourished. — Blair.]
Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages
Judea, and carries off the sacred ves-
sels of the Temple - - - 971
The dynasty of kings called Tanites
begins with Petubastes (Blair) • 825
The dynasty of >S'a//es (BtozV) - 781
Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the
king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to
be roasted alive (Usher) - - 737
Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 660
He invests Azoth, which holds out for
19 years, the longest siege in the an-
nals of antiquity ( Usher) • • 647
Necho begins the famous canal be-
tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi-
terranean sea (Blair) • - 610
This canal abandoned, after costing
the lives of 120,000 men (Herodottis) 609
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes
Apries ( Usher) - - - 581
Apries taken prisoner and strangled in.
nis palace (Diod. Siculus) • - 57)
The philosopher Pythagoras comes
from Samos into Egypt, and is in-
structed in the mysteries of Egyp-
tian theology( t/s/ier) • • 535
* The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later.
As to the achie^ ements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings,
^tributed by ih > Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted.
ele]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
307
EGYPT, continued.
The line of the Pharaohs ends in the
murder of Psammenitus by Camby-
ses (Blair) - • - b. c. 526
Dreadful excesses of Cambyses; he
puts the children of the grandees,
male and female, to death, and makes
the country a waste (Herodotus) - 524
lie sends an army of 50,000 men across
the desert to destroy the temple of
Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish
in the burning sands (Justin) - 524
Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again
subdued by Xerxes (Blair) - - 487
A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - • 463
Successful revolt under Amyrtaius,
who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) - 414
Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its
temples pillaged ( Usher) - - 350
Alexander ihe'Great enters Egypt,
wrests it from the Persians, 'and
builds Alexandria (Z?/tt?r) - - 332
Philadelphus completes the Pharos of
Alexandria (Blair) - - - 283
The Septuagint version of the Old Tes-
tament maile about this time - 283
The famous library of Alexandria also
dates about this period (Blair) - 233
Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269
Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria,
and returns laden with rich spoils.
and 2500 statues and vessels ol gold
and silver, which Cambyses had
taken from the Egyptian temples
(Blair) .... ^16
Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151
At the death of Philometer, his brother
Physcon marries his queen, and on
the day of his nuptials murders the
infant son of Philometer in its moth-
er's arms .... 145
He repudiates his wife, and marries
her daughter by his brother (Blair) 130
ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to
have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VL, 1460. — Rujffiead' s Statutes.
Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving
excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their
votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states.
ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic
body made choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which
prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed
the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em-
peror.— Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648; and a ninth
in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to
eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801.
The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when
the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany.
ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 b. c. Electricity
was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances
by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its
power, of conductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that
two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock
was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the
"Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire,
and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning
His subjects, wearied with his cruel-
ties and crimes, demolish his stat-
ues, set fire to his palace, and he
flies from their fury (Blair) b. 0. 129
He murders his son by his new queen ;
also his son by her mother, sending
the head and limbs of the latter as a
present to the parent on a feast day 129
Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he
recovers his throne ; and dies - 128
Pestilence from the putrefaction of
vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per-
sons perish in Egypt - - - 128
Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous
city of Thebes destroyed after a siege
of three years (Diod. Siculus) - 82
Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to
his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa-
mous Cleopatra (Blair) - - y\
During a civil war between Ptolemy
and Cleopatra, Alexandria is be-
sieged by Caesar, and the famous
library nearly destroyed by fire
(Blair) - - - - 47
Cajsar defeats the king, who, in cross-
ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the
younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra
reign - - - - - 46
Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14
years of age) and reigns alone - 43
She appears before Mark Antony, to
answer for this crime. Fascinated
by her beauty, he follows her into
Egypt 40
Antony defeated by Octavius Cassar
at the battle of Actium (Blair) - 31
Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and
Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the
kingdom becomes a Roman prov-
ince - - - - - 30
308 THE world's progress. [ EBf«
was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au^
rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769.
ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal-
vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries
of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius).
and discovered the mode of combining the metals ; constructed what is
very properly called the Voltaic pile ; and extended the whole science into a
system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism.
KLECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were
discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established
in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France,
Germany, the United States and other countries.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, ^aving more or less
bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by
Winckler, atLeipsic,1746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747;
Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of
"Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavia,
1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in
telegraphs, as propliesicd by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great
advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag-
netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof Morse, 1832, patented
1840. Thu first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En-
gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States
in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in
% Jan. 1850 extended 6 679 miles. — See Supplement.
ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his-
tory of the Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed
1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants
were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus
were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber-
ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of
enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. —
Baker^s Chron.
ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed
by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra-
ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol-
pus, 1356 B.v. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one
revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon
him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis
into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo-
dosius the Great, a. d. 389.
ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived
chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens,
of which temple they formed part of the ft-ieze and pediment, built by Phi-
dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during
his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; they were purchased of him by
the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in
1816.
EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many
thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter
were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead.
The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and
wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible,
emp3 dictionary of dates. 309
but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal
likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies, some of which, buried
3000 years ago, are perfect to this da5^ The art of such embalming: is now
lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last
duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh
and aloes to eipbalm his body. — John xix. 38.
EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is
rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to
war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven-
tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all
Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom,
owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality.
EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all essels in the ports
of the United States, passed by Congress with reference xo the quarrel with
Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re-
pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809, Embargo again laid for 90
days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812.
EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to
implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and
fasting. Embkr Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which
penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four
times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer
to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; but we
learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu-
larly excelled in this decorative species of needle- work. Of this art very
early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23.
An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes-
try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux
Tapestry.
EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in
Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no
true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru; but there is a gen-
uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II.,
* who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred
that this emerald Avas brought from Africa, or the East.
EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera-
ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American
colonies. West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, l!iew South Wales, Swan River,
Van I5iemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 164,291. In the
decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively
of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num-
ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were
registered as born in
Great Britain and Ireland
- 148,212
Denmark
- 210
Germany
- 58,018
Switzerland -
- • 319
France
- - 7,748
Other countries or unknown -
- 3,W3
Sweden and Norway
- 903
EMIR." A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs.
This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by hisdaugliter
Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Rica,ut. To the emirs only was originally given
the privilege of wearing tlie green turban. It is also givep to high officers
(another title being joined).
EMPALE MENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode of putting criminals to
310 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ ENO
death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly
by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through
the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in
Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked
in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil-
liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat-
cliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in hisv ignominious grave.
This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive.
EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge-
nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus
Caesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor
of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of
Germany, crowned by Leo III. a. d. 800. Ottoman L, founder of the Turk-
ish empire, Was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia
was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal
was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825.
EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy-
pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was
useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of
the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of
Agrigentum, about 473 b. c.
ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was
practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in
England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel
which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was
made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887.
ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art,
after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier,
A. D. 1749.
ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly
given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century.
Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet-
ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences,
in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedie
Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri-
buted, was published in Vi%2etseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En-
cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the
fi/st in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopi^iia, edited by Sir David
Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States.
Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of
the 7th edition of Encyclopedia BrUannica. edited by Professor Napier, and
published by A. &-C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc., was stated to have been
;el26,000; of which i;23 000 were paid to the contributors. This was pro-
bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter-
prise. The Encyclopedia Mr.tropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished
in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished
writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon^ .published
1796-1830, and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com-
menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30, Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844.
KNGINEERS. Tiiis name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622.
The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain
Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. The
corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military
force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a
ENG J % DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311
colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty
colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The
Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at
Washington.
ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng-
land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative
had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati-
fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons,
and lond, the Saxon for Country. For English hisfbry and succession of
Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England
and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707,
and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated
with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and
the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
ENGLAND, NEW. See New England.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or
Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of the
most copious and beautiful of Euroj)e. Law pleadings were made in En-
glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had
been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English
tongue and Englisli apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry
VIIL 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the
Latin disused, May 1731.
ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an-
tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal
rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc-
tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo-
dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century.
Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The
art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United
States during the last ten years.
ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their
appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso,
surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The
earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses
for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it
followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis
Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. —
De Piles.
ENGRAVING, Lithographic. Thfs is a new branch of the art, and Alois
Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced
on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in
1808, It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of
London in 1817.
ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im-
proved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; Sir Christopher Wren further improved
it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced,
was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non. about 1662 ; he com-
municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en-
graving originated with the Germans, and Avas first practised by Mair, one
of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zivcography, tf^c.
ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, after
it has been hardened, will multiply <H)pper plates and fine impressions, in-
312 THE world's progress. [epi
definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of
Philadelphia, in 1819.
ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahlei's, or manufacturers
of playing-cards, about a, d. 1400; and from this sprung the invention of
printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See
Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Ley den
in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother,
and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789, et. seq. The earliest wood en-
graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher
carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423.
ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank-
ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London
Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the
study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods
of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful.
ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors.
Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort, The court of
France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the
royal carriages, a. d. 1639.
EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure wa?
one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad,
and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings
contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to
perpetuate his memory, 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was
richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. —
Univ. Hist.
EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con-
trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as
censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the
kings, and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities.
EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See
Homer.
EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the
founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a
happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but
from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with
itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his
system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers.
EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the
ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin
epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all
others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow-
ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine
at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example : —
" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum,"
And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr.
Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in
our language : —
" Live while we live !" the epicure will say,
" And taste the pleasure.s of the present day."
" Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries,
" And give to God each moment as it flies."
Lord ! in mi/ view let both united be,
We live in pleasure when we live to thee —Doddrid/re.
era] dictionary of dates. 318
EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early
history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign,
who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto-
lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in
the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c.
Reign of the great Pyrrhus - B.C. 306
He enters into a league agajnst Deme-
trius ; the battle of Beraea - - 294
Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first
battle against the Romans - - 280
He gains another great battle - - 279
His conquest of Sicily - - - 278
His last battle with the Romans - 274
He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274
Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 272
He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile,
thrown at him from a house-top by a
woman .... 272
Philip unites Epirus to Macedon - 220
Its conquest by the Romans - - 167
*«#♦•«•
Annexed to the Ottoman empire ▲. d. 1466
EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It
may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's
chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second
century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen-
tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops.
In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution,
1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 600. —
Burnet,
EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New-
York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of
the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn-
sylvania and Provost of New-York, consecrated in London, 1787. First
Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and
Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832.
EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro-
mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng-
land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the
epigram. — Boileau.
EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial
complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho-
rus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 686 b. c. —
Bossuet.
EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow-
ledged by the respective historians and clironologers, and which serve to
regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu-
larly adopted. — See Eras.
Creation
Deluge ....
Calling of Abraham
Argonautic ejcpedition -
Destruction of Troy
1st Olympiad
EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places
and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When
the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle,
the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ;
once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in
the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair.
EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity
and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See Chan-
cery.
ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order;
a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser. after which
14
.4004
Building of Rome -
- B.C. 753
-2348
Nabonassar
- 747
-1921
The Seleucidae
- - 312
-1225
The battle of Actium -
- 38
-1184
The Christian era -
A.D. 1
- 776
Diocletian
- 284
314 . THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. | EKB
the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb.
26, 747. The era of the Seleucidas (used by the Maccabees) commenced
312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year
776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning
A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro-
mans reckoned from the building of their city, 758 b. c. ; and afterwards
from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted
among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci-
ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from
Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622.
KRAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians
have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly
used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the
World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christimns have
made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century,
when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot
of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the
birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. —
Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 526, and in Eng-
land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in
this work. — See Creation, and Christian Era.
fiSCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most
magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ;
and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms
a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some
notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according
to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than
four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way
being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and
11,000 windows belonging to this edifice.
ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to,
or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires
by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a
pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the
' armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire
was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1845.
— Stowe. MeyHck's Ancient Armor.
ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis-
covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the
chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by
count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by
Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said
to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by
Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for
about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist
and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of
Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi-
ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain.
It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing,
and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi-
ments. The practice waiS first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin-
burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is
inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first
tised in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance
eve] dictionary of dates. • 315
called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first
employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh.
ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely
more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and
government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with
astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in
the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years
before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not
only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments.
KIN A, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called
by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus
Siculus as happening 1693 b, c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions
as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were er'uptions, 125, 121, and 48
B. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. —
Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,00C
inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions equally awful
and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens
of thousands of persons perished in the streams oif lava which rolled over
the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and
in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava
reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte
destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832.
EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished
there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu-
able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who
reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo-
rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of
geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus,
in A. D. 1533.
EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian
and Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in
courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- '
ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng-
let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on
the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey.
EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken
by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British
forces, jinder admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It
was recovered by th« French under the marquis de Bouill^, Nov. 26, same
year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re-
stored in 1814.
EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in
55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil
at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of
Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100.
— Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of
the adopted Evangelists.
EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated,
and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one
period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who
did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation. '• Do not
316 THE world's progress. r EXt
kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke
up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265.
EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c.
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind
in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag-
nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham,
June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in
Jan. 1671. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1844.
EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site
of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and
finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost Sl,800;000. That of Boston,
also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846.
EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting ^jf officers whose
functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the
first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the
barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Faucon bridge, bishop of Lon-
don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay-
ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. 1673.— Stowe. The English
and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. *
EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia-
ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized
as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an
office opened in 164^, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions
to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was
built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and
customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782.
See Revemce.
AMOUNT OP THB EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWINO YEARS.
1744 Great Britain - • .£3,754,072 1830 United Kingdom - jei8,644,385
1786 Ditto ♦ . - 5,540,114 1834 Ditto " - - 16,877,292
1808 Ditto . . - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - . . 14,518 142
1820 Ditto - . - 26,364,702 1840 Ditto - . - 12,607,766
1827 United Kingdom - • 20,995,324 1^45 Ditto - - - 13,585,583
EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris-
tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of
the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en-
gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to
be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the
Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian
churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar
punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips.
EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni-
cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes
have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose
sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant
power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab-
solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death,
" his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to
bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ;
and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all
England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were
excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to
queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul-
gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her.
EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight years)
EXP J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
317
it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.—
Stowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng-
land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number
of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820,
the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years
ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840,
they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns.
EXECUTIOS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS.
In the year 1820 - 43 j In the year ia35 - nil I In the year 1838 -nil 1 In the year 1841 - 1
In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - iiil In tJie year 1839 - 2 In the year 1842 . 2
In the year 1830 - 6 j In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 j In the year 1843 - 1
EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of
war; Peacock, ditto; Porpoise, brig; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull,
smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads,
Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At-
tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 26, 1846. The
Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes
(flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four vears,
June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 voK Imp.
8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex-
pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes.
EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791.
Exporls.
$19,012,041
20,753.098
- 2G,109;572
33,020.2:33
- 47,989,472
G7,064,097
- 56,850,206
61,527,097
- 78,665,522
70,971,780
- 94.115,925
72,483,160
. 55,800,03,3
77,699,074
- 95,566,021
] 01,536,963
- 108,343,150
22,439,960
- 52,203,231
66,757,974
- 61,316,831
38,527,236
- 27,855,997
6,927,441
- 52,557,753
81,920,452
- 87,671,569
93,281,133
- 70,142,521
EXPORTS, Great Britain. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade,
turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance
of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,00(M.,
and the imported to only 38,000^.
VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ : —
' ' — — -J6102,180,517
- 100,260,101
- 117,877,278
- 131,564,503
. 134,509,116
Years.
Imports.
1791 .
$52,200,000
1792 -
31,500,000
1793
- 31,100,000
1794 -
M.600,000
1795
- 69,756,268
1796 -
81,436.164
1797
75,379,406
1798 -
68,551,700
1799
- 79,')68,148
1800 .
91,252,768
1801
. 111.363,511
1802 -
76;333,33;3
1803
64,666^666
1804 -
85,000,000
1805
120,000,000
1806 .
129,000,000
1807
138,500,000
1808 -
56,990,000
1809
59,400,000
1810 ■
85,400,000
1811
53,400,000
1812 -
77,030,000
18i«
22,005,000
1814 .
12,965,000
1815
113,041,274
1816 .
147,103,000
1817
99,250,000
1818 -
121,750,000
1819
87,125,000
Years.
Imports.
Exports.
69,691,669
1820 -
74,450.000 -
1821
. 62,585,724
• 64,974,382
1822 ■
83,241,641 .
72,160,281
1823
. 77,579,267
- 74,699,030
1824 -
80,549,007 .
75,986,657
1825
- 96,340,075
- 99,535,388
1826 -
84,974,477 -
77,595,322
1827
- 79,484,068
- 82,324,827
1828 -
88,509,824 •
72,264,686
1829
- 74,492,527
- 72,358,671
1830 .
70.876,920 -
73,849,508
1831
- 103;i9 1,134
- 81,310,583
18.3-2 -
101,029,266 -
87,176,943
183:3
- 108.118,311
- 90,140,433
1834 -
12ft;521,332 -
104,336,973
1835
- 149,895,742
- 121,693,577
1836 .
189,980,035 -
128,663,040
1837
- 140,989,217
- 117,419,376
1838 .
108,486,616 .
113,717,404
1839
- 121,028,416
- 162,092,132
1840 .
131,571,950 -
1(M,805,891
1811
- 127,946,177
. 121,851,803
1842 -
100,162,087 -
104,691,534
1843
- 64,753,799*
- 84,346,480*
1844 -
108,435,035t -
lll,200,046t
1845
- 117,254,564t
. 114,646,606t
1846 -
121,691,797t -
113,488,516t
1847
- 146,545,6381
. 158,648,622t
1848 -
154,977,8761 -
154,032,131t
In 1700 -
- jE6,097,120
In 1820 -
-;e51,733,113
In 1842
In 1750
- 10,1.30,991
In 1830
- - 66,735,445
In 1843
In 1775 -
- 16,326,363
In 1835 -
- 78,376,732
In 1844
In 1800
- 3.8,120,120
In 1840
- - 97,402,726
In 1845
In 1810 -
- 45,869,839
In 1841 -
- 102,705,372
In 1846
' Only nine months of 1843.
f For the year ending June 30.
818 ^ THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ FAL
The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom
of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and
colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows :
In 1841 - -jeil6,479,678 lln]843 - - ^£113,844,259 1 In 1845 - -^145,961,749
In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 150,879,986
In the year ending 6th January 1846, the amount of imports into the
United Kingdom was 85,281, 958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng-
land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65.598,028Z. But even this
^reat balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year
immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. —
Brit. Revenue Returns.
EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most
bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com-
manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were
so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians
on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss
in slain alone was 20.000. Feb. 8, 1807.
FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from
faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they
were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and
were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against
the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in
which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There
only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful
as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam.
xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east-
ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit, The fables of Vishnoo Sarma,
called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world.
— Sir William Jon£S. The well-known iEsop's fables {which see), were
written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch.
FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha-
riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors,
a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in
coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90, Both
the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti-
cular color than .the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign,
between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the
name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in
religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense.
FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in
England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spelmaii. They were established by order of
Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Ferice, at which the monks celebrated the
festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de-
mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people making
merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng-
land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the
first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise. and
Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe.
FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots,
commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slain ;
feu] dictionary of dates. 319
the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with
dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298.
FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of
the seven years in Eg:ypt began 1708 b. c. — UsJier ; Blair. In a famine that
raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber,
436 B. c. Livy.
Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42
At Rome, attended by plague - - 262
In Britain, so grievous that people ate
the bark of trees - • - 272
In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306
In England, where 40,000 perish - 310
Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370
So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate
their children {Dufresnoy) - - 450
In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739
Again, when thousands starve - - 823
4gain, which lasts four years - - 954
Awful one throughout Europe - - 1010
In England and France ; this famine
leads to a pestilential fever, which
lasts/romll93 to - - -1195
Another famine in England - - 1251
Again, so dreadful, that the people de-
voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats,
and vermin - - - a.d. 1315
One in England and France (Rapin) - 1353
Again, one so great, that bread was
made from fern roots (Stowe) - 14:38
Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1()9.j
One general in Great Britain - - 17^6
One which devastates Bengal - - 1771
At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per-
sons perish . . - . 1775
One grievously felt in France - -1780
One severely felt in England - - 1795
Again, throughout the kingdom - • 1801
At Drontheim, owing to Sweden Mer-
cepting the supplies - - - 1813
Scarcity of food, severely felt by the
Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6
FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients: Cape hoc fiabellum cl
ventulumhuicsicfacito. — Terknce. The modern custom among the ladies
was borrow(id from the East, Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false
hair, were lirst devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England
from Ymx\Q,ii.— Stowe. The fdw was used by females to -hide their faces in
church. — Pardon.
FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows
which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street.
These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined
form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called
comedies. See article Drama.
FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations
from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other
stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church,
to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. • Retained as
a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by
Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest
magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo-
mon, 1005 B. c.'—Joscpkus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas,
Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be
observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469.
Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300.
See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set-
tled at the Reformation, el seq., see Book of Cornmon Prayer.
FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a fcasx
which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when
sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the
dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre-
viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year.
FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex
cept the citadel, Dec. ^3, 1847.
FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner
of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600. The
320 THje world's PROGRESb. [ FIR
slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was
done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain
persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num-
ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI.
in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol-
ished by statute 12 Charles 11. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into
Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom
20 Greorge II. 1746. — Littleton; Rujfhead; Blackstone.
FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues
and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where
their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins
invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate,
Bee. 26, 1791.
FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about
A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western ]\L rocco
States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than
seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth
century.
FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means
of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became
checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield,
in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that "no fiction of law
SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO
PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional
maxim is now a nile of law.
FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert
I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain,
before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons
(see Feudal Laws). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008.
FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet
Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31,
1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with
such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview
(an open plain) the name of The Field of tJie Cloth of Gold. Many of the
king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and
were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain
splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the
interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler.
FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of
Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at
hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal
monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London !
CromweU dispersed them, 1653.
FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of
computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900.
They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to which
time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic.
FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The
poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster,
king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of
Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun-
tries of the East, 2115 b. c. — Justin ; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the
world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and
FIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321
taught this theory about 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is
said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the
burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St.
John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels,
as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bi^le.
FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were
brought to England about 1388. Eire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire-
land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the
earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at
the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who
armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the
Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the
Genoese, in 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the
battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See
Artillery.
FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although ftie forcing
pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The
fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about
the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the
present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November
1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833.
FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most
formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to
destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of
them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after-
wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin.
FIRE- WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages :
they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360; and were first
exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris,
in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas-
sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with
a i)anic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected
over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned; more than
1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard
ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by
fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and
dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon.
FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America.
In New York, destroying 600 warehou-
ses and rroperty to amount of $20,-
000,000 - - - Dec. 16, 1835
At Washington, desiroying the General
Post Office and Paicnt OfTice, with
New York, destroying 302 stores and
dwelling-nouses, and property worth
$6,000,000—4 lives lost - July 19, 1845
St. .John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the
whole town destroyed— 6,000 people
10,000 valuable models, drawinsfs, 1 made houseless - - June 12, 1846
<fec. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 ; Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persona
At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and I burned to death - - June 14, 1846
1.158 buildiuiis destroyed - April27, 1838, Nantucket; 300 buildings, valued
New York; 46 buildings; loss. $10,- | «800,000 - - - July 13, 1846
(X)0,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839; Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded,
Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847
$500,000 ■ - -" Oct. 4, 1839 At Albany; 600 buildings, besides
Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over,
property valued about $6,000,000 | loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, 1849
' April 10, iai5 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value.
Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt,
immense lo?s of property, and se-
veral lives. May 2S, 1845. Another,
burning 1,300 dwellings; in all, two-
thirds of the city - June 2S, 1845
14*
$750,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848
At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 15
blocks of houses destroyed, loss about
$3,000,000 . - May 17, 1849
At Philadelphia, 300 houses July 9, 1850
322 THE world's progress. [FLO
FIRE OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four days eighty-
nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the
Custom House, Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings,
besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened
(not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three
days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of
houses. — Hurne; Bapin; Carte.
FIRST FRUITS. Primitue among the Hebrews. They were offerings which
made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits
were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in
England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng-
land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the
first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes-
sors.— Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of
the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of
First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April
1838.
FLAGELLANTS, Sect of. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d.
1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel-
lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the
cross, until tlie blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad
Schmidt, was burnt, 1414.
^LANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgag; conquered by Julius Caesar,
47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by
its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the
house of Austria by marriage; but was yielded to Spain in 1656. Flanders
shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572 ; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it
was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrun by
the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It
was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected
into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. — See Belgium.
FLAX. The flax seed was flrst planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many
ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand.
A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the
flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750.
See article Hemp.
FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James IV. of
Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VHI.
of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy ;
and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army
were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry,
lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging
Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513.
FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en-
larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re-
built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal-
aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the
rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad-
emy, and the Accademia delta Crnsca, were instituted to enrich the literature
and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it
rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the
French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814.
FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot
sailing under the English flag in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven-
FLO "]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
323
turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1616. In 1539,
Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin-
sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years
after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United
States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the
Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another
protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until
1842. General Jcssup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The
Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723 ;
in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves.
FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A floren was issued by Ed-
ward III, which was current in England at the value of 65., in 1337. — Cam-
den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because
the latter was of the best gold. — Asfie. The florin :f Germany is in value
25. 4^. ; that of Spain 4s. ^i^d. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 25. M. ; that of
Holland 25. — Aylijfe.^
FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our
gardens are of foreign i)roduction. The modern taste for flowers came, it is
said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for
the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of
our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good-
ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even
the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were,
for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers
in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects
of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented
in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of
whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the
folio wins^ : —
FLOWERS, PLANTS, «fcC.
Acacia, N. America, before - a. d. 1040
Allspice shrub, Carolina - - - 172G
Anniseed tree, Florida, about - - 17(36
Arbor Vitffi, Canada, before - - 1596
Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope - 1774
Auricula, Switzerland - - - ir)67
Azarole, S. Europe, before - - 1640
Bay, royal, Madeira - - - 1665
Bay, sweet. Italy, before - - 1548
Gfwnellia, China - - - - 1811
Chaste tree, Sicily, before - - 1570
Christ's thorn, Africa, before - - 1590
Canary bell-flower. Canaries - • 1696
Carnation, Flanders - - - 1567
Ceanothus, blue. New Spain - - 1818
Canary convolvulus. Canaries - - 1690
Convolvulus, many-flowered - - 1779
Coral tree. Cape - - - ♦ 1816
Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape - 1791
Coral tree, tremulous, Cape - - 1789
Creeper, Virginian, N. Atnerica - 1603
Dahlia, China - - - - 1803
Dryandra, New Holland - - 1803
Evergreen thoni, Italy - - - 1629
Everlasting, great-flowered. Cape ■ 1781
Everlasting, giant, Cape - - - 1793
Fernbush, sweet, N. America • - 1714
Fox-glove, Canaries - - - 1698
Geranium, Flanders - - - 1534
Gillyflower, Flanders • - - 1567
Gold-plant, Japan - - - 1783
Golden bell-flower, Madeira - - 1777
Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer-
ica, before - - - - 1683
Heath, ardent. Cape - - - 1800
Heath, beautiful. Cape - - - 1795
Heath, fragrant. Cape - - - 1803
Heath, garland, CaiDC - - - 1774
Heath, perfumed, Cape • - 1803
Honey flower, great. Cape - - - 1688
Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - - 1806
Honeysuckle, fly. Cape - • - 1752
Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America - 1666
Hyssop, south of Europe, before - - 1548
Jasmine, Circassia, belore • - 1548
Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - - 1629
Judas-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596
Laburnum, Hungary - - - 1576
Laurel. Alexandrian, Portugal, before 1713
Laures'tine, south of Europe, before
Lavender, south of Europe, before
Lily, Italy, before -
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales
Lily, red-colored, South America •
Loblolly-bay, N. America, before
Lupine tree. Cape, about -
Magnolia (see Magnolia)^ N. America 1"688
Magnolia, dwarf, China
Maernolia, laurel-leaved, N. America
Maiden hair. Japan -
Mignionetfe, Italy
1596
1568
1460
1800
1623
1739
1793
1786
1734
1714
1528
324
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[for
FLOWERS, continued.
Milk-wort, great-flowered. Cape - - 1713
Milk-wort, showy, Cape - - 1814
Mountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758
Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596
Myrtle, candlebeny, N. America - - 1699
Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - - 1776
Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596
Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730
Olive, sweet-scented, China - - 1771
Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596
Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - - 1724
Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692
Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 1792
Pigeon-berry, N. America - - 1736
Pink, from Italy - - - - 1567
Ranunculus, Alps - - - 1528
Roses, Netherlands - - - - 1522
Rose, the China, China - - 1789
Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and
south of Europe, about - - 1543
Rose, the Japan, China - - -1793
Rose, the moss, before - - - 1724
Rose, the musk, Italy - - - 1522
Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from
China 1821
Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon - 1629
Rose without thorns, N. America, be-
Rosemary, south of Europe -
St. Peter's wort. North America -
Sage, African, Cape
Sage, Mexican, Mexico
Sassafras tree, N. America, before
Savin, south of Europe, before
Snowdrop, Carolina
Sorrel tree, N. America, before -
Sweet bay, south of Europe, before
Tamarisk plant, Germany -
Tea tree, China, about -
Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before -
Trumpet-flower, N. America -
Trumpet-flower, Cape
Tulip, Vienna -
Virgmia creeper, N. America, before 1629
Virgin's-bower, Japan - - - 1776
Weeping willow, Levant, before - - 1692
Wax tree, China - - - 1794
Winter berry, Virginia - - - 1736
Youlan, China .... 1789
- 1726
- 1548
- 1730
• 1731
- 1724
- 1663
- 1584
■ 1756
- 1752
- 1M8
- 1560
- 1768
- 1739
- 1640
- 1823
1578
FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarch.
The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ;
and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay
claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru-
ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co-
relli came over. — See Music.
FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib-
nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler,
La Grange, and La Place.
FLYING, Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main-
tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac-
tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man
call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him
call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away pre-
viously to the accomplishment of these predictions.
FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in
1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and
Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na-
poleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct, 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon-
tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon-
tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here
Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army,
April 5, 1814.
FONTENOY, Battle of, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe,
and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the
duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the
carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and
the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end
defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which
he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring
his troops that the day would be their own ; April 80, 1745.
FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in
a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early
FOUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32o
ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser-
voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia-
tion into Christianity^ were instituted in a. d, 167.
FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and
were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of
absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed
jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu-
ro'pe), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625.
FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68
forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp-
shire was made by William L, who for that purpose" destroyed 36 parishes,
pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round,
a. d. 1079-85.— ^towe.
FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c.,
made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut
off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual
imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in
1634.
FORGERY, Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro-
bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan-
uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200/. : the greatest interest was made,
and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came
before the council, the minister of the day said to George III., " if your
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he
was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London
banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer-
chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for
forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829.
FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. —
Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory-
son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of
using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate
the Italian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608.
FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified
cities.^ Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues
were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about
A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve-
ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700.
FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard
III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death
is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded
in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8,
1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng-
land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England.
FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. " A charity practised by most nations about us
for those children exposed by unnatural parents." — Addison. Foundling
hospitals are, comparatively, of recent institution in England, where it
would appear none existed when Addison wrote. The foundling hospital
at Moscow, built by Catherine 11. , was an immense and costly edifice, in
which 8000 infant children were succored.
^26
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[fra
FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In
the decUne of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people -of Ger-
many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconfe. These invaders gave
the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous,
are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution,
France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided,
first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica
Greneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views^ 65 et seq.
1350. John II. ; died suddenly in tiie Savoy
in London.
1364. Charles V., sumamed the Wise ; tha
first prince who had the title of dau-
phin. (See article Dauphin.)
1380. Charles VI., the Beloved.
1422. Charles VII., the Victcarious.
1461. Louis XI., detested for his atrocious
cruelties.
14&3. Charles VIII., the Affable.
1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed
the Father of his People.
1515. Francis I.
1547. Henry II. : died of a wound received
at a tournament.
1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart,
afterwards queen of Scots ; died
the year after his accession,
1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his
mother, obtained the regency, wiiich
trust she abused.
1574. Henry HI., elected king of Poland;
murdered Aug. 1, 1589. by .lacques
Clement, a Dominican friar. In this
prince was extinguished the hous«»
of Valois.
1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon,
king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran-
cis Ravillac. (See liavillac.)
1610. Louis XIII., the Just.
1643. l.ouis XIV., the Great, also styled
Dieu-Doti7ie.
1715. Louis XV., the Well-Beloved; but
which surname he lost. "
1774. Louis XVI., hi.s grandson ; guillo-
tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen
Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following.
1789. The Revolution commences with the
destruction of the Bastile, July 14.
1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison.
FRENCH EMPIRK.
1801. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe-
ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the
pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumea
the iron crown, May 26, 1805. Re-
nounces the thrones of France and
Italy, Apr. 5, 1814.
BOURBONS RESTORED.
1814. Louis XVIII.; ascends the throne i
May 3, 1814 ; dies, Sept. 16, 1824.
1824. Charles X, ; deposed, July 30, 1830;
retires to Rambouillet same day,
and subsequently seeks protection
in England.
HOUSE OF ORLEA»tl.
1830. Louis- Philippe ; declared « king ol
the French," August 9.
The Franks, under their leader Phara-
mond, settle in that part of Gaul till
late called Flanders - - a. d. 420
Reign of Clo vis the Great - - 481
[The Events in French History and the
succession of sovereigns will be found
in the Tabular Views in this volume,
commencing p. 65. J
720. Childeric IL
737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic
sway during an interregnum.
742. Childeric 111., the Stupid ; turned
monk.
THE CARLOVINGIANS.
752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar-
tel ; this race called Carlovingians.
768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great;
also emperor of Germany.
814. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also,
the Debonnnire ; dethroned, and im-
prisoned in a monastery.
840. Charles 1 1.. surnamed the Bald; poi-
soned by his physician Henault.
877. Louis the Stammerer.
879. Carloman and Louis III. The latter
died, 882. Carloman reigned alone.
884. Cliarles the Fat ; an usurper.
887. Eudes or Hugh.
898. CharCes III., the Simple; deposed and
died in prison.
923. Rudolph.
936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall
from his horse.
954. Lothaire III. poisoned ; it is said by
his wife Emma.
986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by
his wife Blanche, and in him ended
the vice of Charlemagne.
THE CAPETS.
987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of
kmgs are called Capevingians.
996. Robert the Sage.
1031. Henry I.
1060. Phihp I., the Fair.
1108. Louis VI., the Lu.stv.
1137. Louis VII., the Young.
1180. Philip II., Augustus.
1223. Louis VIII., the Lion.
1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis ; died in
his camp before Tiniis ; canonized.
1270. Philip III., the Hardy.
1285. Philip IV., the Handsome.
1314. Louis X., Ilutin.
1316. John, who reigned only eight days.
1316. Philip v., theLon^.
1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; king of
Navarre.
HOUSE OF VALOIS.
1328. Philip de Valois.
FRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327
FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an-
ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain,
churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they
were formerly in England. The elective franchise w£ts conferred for coun-
ties on persons having 405. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruff head's
Statutes. See Electors.
FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church
of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some
authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and
very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in
England, where, at tlic time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII.,
they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a. d. 1536-38.
FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken
several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the
iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, Avhcn its independence was guar-
anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was
established here by the Rlicnish confederation in 1806.
FREDERICKSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable by the death of
Charles XII, , of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls,
and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works.
He was found in that position, with his hand upon liis sword, and a prayer-
book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis-
tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele-
brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North."
FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves
masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and
harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build-
ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast,
Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec-
tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been
fixed at the year a. d. 674; although by other authorities it is assigned i
much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free-
masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into
great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that
of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema-
sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738.
FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French
laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066.
The language, and fjxshions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng-
land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of
Edward III., U&l.—Stowe.
FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the
American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the
British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri-
can commander and his troops were made prisoners.
FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng-
land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The
French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me.. &xi., 1690 ; but were defeated
by Schuyler at La Prairie. 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. " Queen Anne's
war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish
invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French
in Port Royal, 1707; and against Canada, 1710; both failed. Peace of
Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744 ; Louisbourg and
Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745, Peace, 1749. French en-
328 THE world's PROORESS. [ FRO
croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3,
Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, Sic. taken
by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the Eng-
lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon-
deroga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W.
Johnson and Greneral Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain,
Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763.
French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6,
1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the
United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797.
FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, a goddess wor-
shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same
with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility,
and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of
our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday.
FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on
the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com-
pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and
50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by which
Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her
dominions.
FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, a. d. 1642.
Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook,
who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi-
tion of the natives, 1773.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in
the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into
importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative
enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than
twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly
Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities.
FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince
Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han-
over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol-
land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but
Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux dc Frise (some-
times, though rarely, written Ckeval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived
from Friesland, where it was invented.
FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng-
lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576.
After exj)k)ring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which
has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England,
bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain
gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and
lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a
third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless.
FROSTS The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a. d. 4Gi.~Univ. Hist.
A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued
until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred
miles from the shore. — Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day
was 80 violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, \^Zb.— Speed. The
frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that
country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the
French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable
yUN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329
year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the
frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses
fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effectg
of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year
more than 400,000 men.
FRXJITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned
as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et s^eq. Exotic fruits and
flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought
thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIIL, and of Mary and Elizabeth,
between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Flowers. Among
others of less note, were musk-melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun-
dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saffron, woad, and
other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with-
out success— Hackluyt; Lord Kahnes. The following are among the fruits
whose introduction into England has been traced :—
FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame-
Almond-trec, Barbary - - A. d. 1548 rica, before - ^ -. ' ^:^-}§??
Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry, the paper, from.* pan, before 1754
Apple, the custard. North AmericB - 1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - - 15^
Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - - 1730
Apricots Epirus - - - - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China - \u\
Cherry-trees, Pontus - • - 100 Oranges ... - .1595
Cornelian cherry, Austria - - - 1596 Peaches, Persia - - • - l&b-^
Currants, Zante - - - -1533 Pears, from various climes - •
Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - lobS
Fig-tree, south of Europe, before - 1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - - 152o
Fig,theBotany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy - - - -15^
Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 Plum, the date. Barbary • - - 159b
Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 Pomegranate, Spam, before - - 1548
Lemons. Spain - - - -1554 Qumce, Austria - - - -1573
Limes, Portugal ... - 1554 Quince, the .Japan . - ^ - . " {J^o
Lime, the American, before - - 1752 Raspberry, the flowering, N . America - 1700
Melons, before - - - - 1540 , Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before- 1696
Mock orange, south of Europe, before - 1596 Strawberry, Flanders - - - 15J0
Mulberry Italy - ' - - - 1520 i Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724
M ilberryl white, China, about - - 1596 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1629
FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in
A. D. 1171. Public fimds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, m
1340. The En2:lish funding system, or the method of raising the supplies
for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues
(the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689.— ikf^r-
timer's Broker. The funding systemMS coeval with the commencement of
the Bank of l^wgl^n^.— Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea-
ted in H26. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three
per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea-
house, 1751. Thrtje and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui-
ties, 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities, 1797, and
1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt
FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks
they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne
mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were
abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea-
then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in-
dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place a. d
1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793.
FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead,
when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain-
ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 b. c. Po-
pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral
330 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ GAR
which was done by her son Crassus; and it is observed by Cicero that Juliua
Caesar did the hke for his aunt Julia, and his wife Corneha. In Greece,
Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo-
tus, 680 B. c.
FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux-
ury advanced, they were used by princes as linings for their tents. They
were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward HI. enacted that
all such persons as could not spend lOOZ. a year, should be prohibited this
species of finery, 1337.
G.
GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were
invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens,
786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting
in them, see Poly bins.
GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent ; it was first noticed in 1767, by
Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani
of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and
from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani
having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the
contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon : and
in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject.
Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu-
rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers.
See Electi-o- Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles
of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000
livres, in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesvierism.
GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the
north of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by
William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of
property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar.
Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they protested against
ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in
1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume-
rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time.
GAMING, Excessive. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was
often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. —
Camden; Sloive. Act, prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting
tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time),
33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act
to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and
the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739.
— Ruffhead's Slatutes. The profits of a well-known gaminghouse in London
for one season have been estimated at 150,000/. In one night a million of
money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh.
GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective
heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on
new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The
game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See
the Capitolitie, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular, and other Games.
GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of
building houses. — Walpolc. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine.
Of fruit, flower, and kitchen gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt,
gar]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
33\
the prototype. — Idem. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par-
terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one
in that of our William III. — Idem. The art of gardening became better
understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our
vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign
of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about
1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : —
ROOTS AND VEGETABLES.
Carrots
- Flanders
Plums -
- Damascus
Brocoli -
- Cyprus
Oranges -
- Spain
Rice, from
- Ethiopia
Beans -
- Greece
liCmons
• Spain
Buckwheat -
- Asia
Peas - -
- Spain
Pink
- Italy
Borage -
- Syria
Provence-rose
- Marseilles
Cresses
- Crete
FRUITS AND
FLOWERS.
Convolvulus
- Canaries
Cauliflower
- Cyprus
Arctopus
Bell-fower
- Cape
Asparagus -
- Asia
Jasmine
• Circassia
■ Canaries
Lettuce -
- Brabant
Elder- tree
- Persia
Cherr/ts
Pontus
Artichol.'os -
- Holland
Tulip -
- Cappadocia
Figs - -
Italy
Garlic -
• The East
Daffodil .
- Italy
Date-plum -
- Barbary
Shallots
• Siberia
Lily -
Syria
Mulberry •
Italy
Horse-radish
- China
Tuberose -
.Java, &c.
Nectarine -
Persia
Kidney-beans
- East Indies
Carnation •
Italy, «fec.
Passion-flower
Brazil
Gourds •
- Astraca)!
Ranunculus
Alps
Pomegranate
Spain
Lentils -
- France
Apples
Syria
Rosemary
Italy
Chervil -
- Italy
Apricots -
- Epirus
Laburnum -
Hungaiy
Celery -
- Flanders
Currants
- Zante
Laurel
Levant
Potatoes •
- Brazil
Damask-rose
• Damascus
Lavender -
Italy
Tobacco
- America
Hops -
- Artois
Peaches -
Persia
Cabbage •
- Holland
Gooseberries
- Flanders
Quitice
Austria
Anise -
- Egypt
Gilly-flowers
- Toulouse
Weep, Willow Levant
Parsley •
- Egypt
Musk-rose
- Damascus
Fennel -
Canaries
Musk-melons and other ricj^i fruits that are now cultivated in England, and
the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c.,
were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1620. The damask-
rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about
1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead,
in Sussex, 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng-
land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several
sorts of i)lums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came
from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by
archbishoi) Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted
flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose,
&c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots
from Vienna, 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use,
1600. See Flowers; Fruits.
GARTER,~Ordi-:ii of the. This institution outvies all other similar institu-
tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France
and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward,
with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of his
mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and
thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed
a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to
the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal
letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign
knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour-
naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor ; it
was begim by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia-
meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were
entertained at the king's own expense of lOOZ. a week. In 1346, Edward
gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with suc-
cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and
having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner ; and Edward the Black Prince,
332 THE world's moGRESS. [ GEN
his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so-
vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order,
A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the
ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in-
scription in old French — " Honi soU qui mat y pense " — evil to him who evil
thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled
Equites aurem Periscelidis^ knights of the golden garter. — Beatson.
GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr.
Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. T^-ans. Its application to the purposes of illumi-
nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis-
play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham,
on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently
used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips
and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights
were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They
were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London
in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge-
nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex-
tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States)
first lighted with gas, 1823-4.
GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first
printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because
una gazctta, a SBiall piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it.
Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer, —
Truster. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in
1715, — Nouv. Diet. Hist. •
GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub-
lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov.
7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed
to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666, London Gazettes Extraordinary are
used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter
was forged with a view of affecting the funds. May 22, 1787. The fraud
succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phitlips. The
Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767.
GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the
church was held December 20, 1560, The General Assembly constitutes
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin-
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis-
sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates
from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen.
To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its
decision is final. See Church of Scotland.
GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote
times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the
title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203, — Henault. It is observed
by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissiw,o,
upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in
1629.
GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub-
lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584.
Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in
. consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire-
land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted
60,000Z. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them
lands near Waterford, called New (Geneva. Many of the fugitives came tc
GEO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. ^33
Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it : at this period many
Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge-
neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813.
GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro-
mans. 115 B. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till
A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other
magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic,
1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated
Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers.
Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745.
Grenoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of
the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con-
querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without
effect, Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The cel'ebrated bank failed 1750. The
city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally
starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren-
dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The Ligurian
Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly
invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire. May 26,
1805. It surrendered to the combined English aiid Sicilian army, April 18,
1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection
against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849.
GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans,
the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap-
plied to them the terms ecuyers and gentitshommes. This distinction of gen-
tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended,
about A. D. 1430. — Sidney.
GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge
is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing
the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the
countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The
priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the
world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps,
about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati-
cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of
Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mari-
ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England
by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a
westemxontinent, a. d. 1489.
GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical
speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been
cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories
and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as
being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the
astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by
scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoverif^.
in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by
Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition thai
the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth Mas
framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds
created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world
into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible
reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that
man and other living tilings have been placed but a few thousand years
334 THE world's progress. [ GEP
upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to tht
same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken
of Id the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments
drawn fVom analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe-
nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from
each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teeming
with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been
called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blomfield.
GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations
of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the
boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600
B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of
curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic
sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b, c. The conchoid
curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The scienc»i of geometry was
taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo-
metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected
with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stowe.
GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general
Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known
by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi-
racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIIL,
Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were
sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave
France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22.
In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, which see.
GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle-
thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan-
nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town
and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted
the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82,584 ; in 1840,
691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice.
GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German,
or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist; but that
instead thereof, a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar-
rangement wns adopted in 1815. by the allied sov(*reigns; and Germany is
now governed by a diet consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any
alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi-
sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five,
divided according to the relativ^e consequence of the states. See Addenda.
GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman
historians about 211 b. g. : it was anciently divided into several independent
states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans
to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated
efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a. d. 290. In 432,
the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive
country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor,
became master of the whole, a. d. 802.
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the \ Charles III. was the firat sovereign who
West at Rome - - a. d. 800 added " in the year of our Lord" to
He adds a second head to the eagle, to
denote that tlie empires of Rome and
Germany are united in him - - 802
Louis {Debonnaire) separates Germany
fire ni France - - - ' - 814
his reign
The German princes assert their inde-
pendence, and Conrad reigns
[The electoral character assumed about
this time. See Elector*.}
oer]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
335
GERMANY, continued.
Reign of Henry I, (king) surnamed the
Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns,
Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919
Otho I, extends his dominions, and is
crowned emperor by the pope - 962
Henry III. conquers Bohemia, wasting
it with fire and sword - - 1042
Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders
through Germany, where they mas-
sacre "the Jews - - - . 1095
Henry IV. excommunicated by pope
Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106
Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in-
vestitures, with the pope - - 1122
The Guelph and Ghibeline feuils begin 1140
Conrad HI. leads a large army to the
holy wars, where it is destroyed by
the treachery of the Greeks - - 1147
Teutonic order of kniglKhood - -1190
Reign of Ilodolph, count of Hapsburgh,
chosen by the electors - - 1273
The famous edict, called the Golden
Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356
Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected
emperor. He'betrays John Huss and
Jerome of Prague, who are burned
alive (see Bohemia) - - - 1414
Sigismond being driven from the throne,
Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds.
(In his family the crown resides for
three centuries) - - - 1438
The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - 1439
The empire divided into circles - 1512
Era of the Reformation (Luther) - 1517
Abdication of Charles V. - - 1556
War of the two parties, the Evangelic
union under Frederick, elector pala-
tine, and the Catholic league, under
the duke of Bavaria - - - 1618
Battle of Prague, which lost the elector
palatine the crown - - - 1620
Treaty of Westi)halia - - -1648
John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats
the Turks in m;niy battles, and obliges
them to raise ihc siege of Vienna - 1683
The peace of Carlowitz - - 1()99
The Pragmatic sanction {ichich ace) - 1722
The reign oJ' (Miarles VI, is chiefly occu-
pied with wars aizainst i he Turks, and
m establishing the Pragmatic sanc-
tion, in favor of the succession of his
daqghtcr, Maria Theresa, married to
the duke of Lorraine - 1711 lo 174':?
Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries
the heiress of Austria, the celebrated
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ;
and is elected emperor - - 17-15
Joseph II. extends his dominions by the
dismemberment of Poland - -1772
Again, by the final partition of that de-
voted kingdom - - - 171;5
[In the ruinous wars between Germany
and France, the emperor loses the
Netherlands, all his territories west
of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy,
1793, et seg.]
Francis I. assumes the title of empe-
ror of Austria - - Aug. II, 1804
Dissolution of the German empire ; for-
mation of the Confederation of the
Rhine - - - July 12, VM)
General agitation atnttng the people,
and demands for reform granted in
various degrees by sovereigns of
Prussia, Bavaria, <fec. ; and by those
of the smaller principalities of Ger-
many - - Feb. and March, 1848
A federal union of the German States
demanded by Prussia March, 1848
Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit-'
ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1848
German Parliament meets at Frank-
fort - - - May 18. 1848
The archduke, John of Austria, elected
by the parliament as lord-lieutenant
of the Empire - - June 29, 1848
He is installed at Frankfort, and names
his ministers - - July 15, 1848
Great ^excitement in Germany on ac-
count of the execinion at Vienna of
Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher,
for aiding the insurrection Nov. " 18^8
A. D.
800.
814.
810.
855.
875.
878.
879.
887.
899.
912.
912.
919.
936.
973.
983.
1002.
1024.
1039.
1055.
1077.
10.30.
1105.
1125.
li;38.
1152.
1191.
1198.
1208.
1211.
1245.
1246.
1273.
1291.
1298.
1314.
1.347.
1378
1399.
14(X).
1410.
1437.
1440.
EMPERORS C GBJtfANY.
Charlemagne the Great.
Louis the Debonnaire.
Lothaire.
Louis II.
Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned,
Louis III., the Stammerer.
Charles III., the Gross.
Arnould.
Louis IV.
Oiho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the
dignity on account of his age.
Conrad, duke of Franconia.
Henry L, the Fowler.
Otho I., the Great.
Otho II., the Bloody.
Otho III., the Red ; poisoned.
Henrv II., duke of Bavaria; the Holy
and Lame. ^
Conrad II., the Salique.
Henry III., the Black.
Henry IV. ; deposed.
Rodolphus ; killed in battle.
Henry IV. ; re-instated.
Henry V,
Lothaire II.
Conrad 111.
Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned in Bo-
hemia.
Henry VI., the Sharp.
Philip ; killed at Bamberg.
Otho I V ; deposed.
Frederic II. ; deposed.
Henry VII ; killed.
William ; killed in battle.
Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, the
first of the Austrian family.
Adolphus ; deposed.
Albert I. ; killed by his nephew.
Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, in
the consecrated wafer.
Louis IV., of Bavaria ; killed by a fall
from his horse.
Charles IV., of Luxembourg.
Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia.
Frederick, Duke of Brunswick.
Rupert, palatine of the Rhine.
Sigismond, king of Hungary.
Albert II., duke of Austria and king of
Bohemia.
Frederick III., archduke of Austria.
336 THE world's progress. f GIB
GERMANY, continued.
1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress
of Burgundy.
1519. Charles v., kmg of Spain.
1558. Ferdinand!., king of Hungary.
1564. Maximilian II.
1576. RodolphusII.
1612. Matthias I.
1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary.
1637. Ferdinand III., ditto.
1658. Leopold I., ditto
1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia.
1711. Charles VI.
1742. Charles VII.
1745. Francis L; husband of Maria Theresa
queen of Hungary and Bohemia.
1765. Joseph II.
1790. Leopold II.
1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em
peror of Austria only, in 1806.
1806. Confederation of the Rhme {which see).
1815. Germanic Confederation.
1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria,
(See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning
p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavaria,
Prussia, Wurtemburg, &c.)
There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English
counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine
(one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the
head of the famous Hanseatic League,, formed in that city in 1164.
GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed-
ward ni. of England, was born here, and hence named Jokn of Gaunt.
Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of
Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con-
tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great
Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814.
GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height ; he was
also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb,
and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius.
"The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara,
who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia.
He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in
Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter,
the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in
height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of
the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch-
es long; he died in September 1806, in his 40th year. Giants' bones 17, 18,
20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is
now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds.
GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi-
ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with
Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of
Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English
feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik, Mountain of
Tarik, whence its present name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of
Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George
Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng,
bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon-
ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since
continued an appendage to the British crown.
Gibraltar attacked by the British on the
21st July, and taken on the 24th, a. d. 1704
Besieged by the Spanish and French ;
they lose 10,000 men, and the victori-
ous English but 400 - Oct. 11, 1704
The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar,
and are repulsed with great loss - 1720
They again attack it with a force of
20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the
loss of the English is only 300 - 1727
Memorable siege of the Spaniards and
French, whose prodigious arma-
ments* (the greatest ever brought
against a fortress) were wholly over-
thrown. The siege continued from
.luiy 1779, to Feb. - - 1783
* The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troopaf
of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear again.st the fortress, besides which, there
gle] dictionary of dates. 337
GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. The capitol was the first
building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole
ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Truster. A
single grain ot gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf
that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo-
niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on
wood, previously known, was improved in 1680.
GISORS, Battle op, in France, between the armies of France and England, in
which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the
day was " Dieuet man droit'' — " God and my right;" and from this time it
was made the motto to the royal arms of England,, a. d. 1198.
GI ADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives,
or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral
ceremonies of tlie Romans. 2G3 b. c, probably following the Greek custom
of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle.
Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra-
tion of his triumph for 128 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea-
tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325, Fi-
nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet.
GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from
' James II,, in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest
commerce was in salmon, about 1420.
I GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass
% by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass-
^ houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for
many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of
Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were
formed of glass before a. d. 79, Italy had the first glass windows, next
France, whe'hce they came to England. Used for windows in private houses
in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The manufacture
was established in England at Crutchcd-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. —
Stowe. It was improved in 1G35, and was brought to great perfection in the
reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit-
ted, 1845.
GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles
in a beautiful style, about a. n. 1500. It is said the art existed in England
towards tlie 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about
15J0,
GLENCOE, Massacre of. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending
and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering
in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ;
and women and children, their wives and off*spring, were turned out naked
were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carryini»
212 guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutlers, and gun and mortar boats;
while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together. 6000 shells
were daily thrown into the town ; and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex-
pended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls,
and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general
Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss in inuniiitms of war, on thisTiight alone, was estimated at
"pwards of 2,600,000/, sterling. But their LM-and defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred
i^«pt. 13, 1782.
15
338 THE world's progress. [ CJOD
in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black
deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691.
GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal
circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar
eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about
640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars
by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an-
tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and
evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of
the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire,
the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main-
tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun ;
which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi-
losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage
round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel-
lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same
enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1677. — See Circumnavigation, and Earth,
GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints,
angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from
the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century.
The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of
Rome, and was called doxology because it began with S(J|a, glory, a. d.
382.
GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving
of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and
two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove,
A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in-
corporated in 1566. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in
1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day.
GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity.
The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the
Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in-
famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a
complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to
extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con-
sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which
they diflered among themselves as much as they did from others.
GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the
suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the
chief, called Giles Gobehn, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said 'to
have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the
scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the
same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of
all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc-
tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by
the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Fres-
noy.
GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir-
cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose
in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ.
It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander ;
according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d.
GOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 33|
130. In Catholic countries they ha\o godfathers and godmothers in the
baptism of their bells.
GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has,
from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most
valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with
copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our
coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no
metals were used but those found pure, aa^ gold, silver, and copper. The
smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to
observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests.
GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most
abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold was dis-
covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported
into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex-
clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing
ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces),
was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca,
in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ;
in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali-
fornia, April 1848.
GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as
stated in the Mining Journal :
Gold. Silver.
Mexico je6,436,453 ^ jei39,818,032
Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,822,924
Buenos Ayres 4,024,895 = 27,182,673
Russia 3,703,743 - 1,602,981
J617,003,579 = jB170,326,6To
The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 8^
times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis-
phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia,
discovered 1824-30, had produced altogetlier up to 1835, ^4,377,600. Those
of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb.
1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which
was sent to Europe. The amount .of California gold coined at the U. S.
mint in 1849 was about 86,000,000. The total annual production of 'gold in
the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North
and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago,
4|, Africa 14. ^ See Coin.
GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from
lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re-
cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^6tes, king of Colchis, had seized,
after murdering their o<vner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to
Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave
occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re-
covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c.
GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows
the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens,
ab<,*ut 432 b. c. — Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar
cycle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the
number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number.
GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been
held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on
Friday, April 3, a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to
the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Pri-
340 THE world's progress. [ GOV
day^ on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en-
joined on this day.
GrORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to
the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia.
Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the
oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut
away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a
military sense at least, this " conqueror of the world " interpreted the ora-
cle, 830 B. c.
GORDON'S "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George
Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's
Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a peti^i^-n
to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences
to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but
proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down
the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several
other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at-
tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overcc ming the civil
power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of
the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties,
then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com-
menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private
mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened;
among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the
6th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the
rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in
the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George
was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780.
— Annual Register.
GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ;
St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found
buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in
485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was
thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt,
and banished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings
of the actual cqpiing of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of
Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for
propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701.
GrOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who
first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery :
it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of
their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop
Burnet.
GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian,
Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic sea§. They attacked the Roman empire a. d.
251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After
the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under
Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained
their dominion till a. d. 653, when they were finally conquered by Narses,
Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king-
dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens.
GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an
elaborate article in the American Almanac. 1847; this result is reached, viz. :
GRM ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
34)
"m the United States : aggregate of
national expenditure, for each in-
habitant - - - - $0 97
Aggregate of State expenditure, for
each inliabitant « - - 0 50
Aggregate of town or city expendi-
ture, for each inhabitant - - 0 92
Total cost of Government in the
United States, per head - - $2 39
or $47,800,000 if the population is
20 millions.
In England, according to Maccul-
loch, the average is equal, per
head, to
In France, according to Chevalier,
in 1833, the cost was about 1,250
millions of francs, or 40 francs per
head — say - - . -
Thus, France pays about three
times, and Great Britain five times
.as much for Government as the
United States. (See Administra-
tions of the United States.)
. «1233
«7a)
GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Groeks as the
altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that account. They would not
partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits,
to their gods ; and hence came tlie short prayer said before and after meat
in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet.
GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera-
ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed
at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci-
cero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, ^lius Donatus, Remmius Palemon,
Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenjeus, and other distinguished men, were of
this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati-
cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's
said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis-
cover one error."
GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure
food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn
from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea-
sury. There were three hundred and twent3^-seven granaries at Rome. —
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads,
thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in-
crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610, — Stowe.
GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the
Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the
Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30-000 foot and 6000
horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse.
— Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers,
and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken
by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334
B. c.—^Bossuet.
GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their
halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large
stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There
were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200,
See Chimneys,
GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate powder, was noticed by the
Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters,
about A. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615; and Hook pub-
lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at
Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton,
about 1687.
GR^CIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies
842
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[grs
but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the
southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Graecia compre-
hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was
likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lempriere,
GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an-
cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece
was so called from a very ancient king named Graecus ; and another king
named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls
the inhabitants, indifferently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For
ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq.
Sicyon founded (Eicsebius) - b. c.
Uranus arrives in Greece (^Lenglet) -
Revolt o( the Titans
War of the Giants
Kingdom of Argos begun {Eusebius) •
Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia (idem)
Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in
Greece by Phoroneus -
According to some authors, Sicyon was
now begun {Lenglet) ■
Deluge ot Ogyges X^ohich see) -
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy
under CEnotrus : the country first
called (Enortria, afterwards Magna
Grcbcia (Eusebius) •
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles
commences (Eusebius)
Cecrops comes into Attica (idem)
The Areopagus instituted
Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius)
Reign of Hellen (idem) -
Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters,
settles in Boeotia
Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards
called Sparta . - - -
Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship
ever seen in Greece -
He gets possession of Argos. His fifty
daughters - . . .
First Olympic games celebrated at Elis,
by the laebi Dactvli (Eusebius)
Iron discovered by the Idai Dactyli •
Corinth rebuilt, and so named -
Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches
the art of making bread
The Isthmi*.! games instituted -
MycensB created out of Argos -
Argonautic expedition (which see)
The Pythian games by Adrastus
War of the seven Greek captains
The Amazonian war ; these martial fe-
males penetrate into Greece -
Rape of Helen by Theseus
Rape of Helen by Paris
Commencement of the Trojan war
Troy taken and destroyed on the night
of the 7th of the month Thargelion
(27th May, or Uth .June)
JEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and
arrives in Italy
Migration of the JEolian colonies, who
build Smyrna, &c.
Settlement of the lonians from Greece
in Asia Minor ....
The first laws of navigation originate
with the Rhodians
Homer flourishes about this time
(Arundelian Marbles)
Olympic games revived at Elis
2089
2042
1856
1796
1773
1773
1764
. 1710
1582
1556
1506
1503
1459
1493
1453
1406
1384
1383
1326
1313
1263
1263
1225
1213
1213
1198
1193
1181
1124
1044
916
907
884
664
658
- 508
The first Messenian war - b. c. 743
The second Messenian war - - 685
The capture of Ira - - - 670
The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and
give their own name Messene to Zan-
cle (now called Messina) - - 668
Sea-fight, the first on record, between
the Corinthians and the inhabitants
of Corcyra ....
Byzantium built by the Argives
Sybaris, in Magna Graecia, destroyed,
100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat
300,000 Sybarians
Sardis taken «.nd burnt, which occa-
sions the Persian invasion
Thrace and Macedonia conquered
Battle of Marathon (which see) -
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 480
at Thermopylas by I.eonidas .
Battle of Salamis (M?/^/cA see) ♦
Mardonius defe«x'jed at Platsea -
Battle of Eurymedon
The third Messenian war
Athens begins to tyrannize over the
other states of Greece
Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles
The first sacred war
Herodotus reads his history in the
Council at Athens
The sea-fight at Cnidus -
Battle of Mantinea
Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes
all the cities of the Ph oceans
Battle of Chajronea
Alexander, the son of Philip, enters
Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and
destroys the city of Thebes . - 335
Commencement of the Macedonian or
Grecian Monarchy - - - 331
Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the
throne of Darius - . . 330
Alaric invades Greece - - a. d. 395
The empire under Nicephorus com-
menced - - - '811
Greece mastered by the Latins - - 1204
Re-conquered .... 1261
Invaded by the Turks - - - 1350
Its final overthrow. See Eastern Em-
pire ..... 1353
[This country, so long illustrious for the
military exploits, the learning, and
arts of its people, became of late ,
years the scene of desperate con-
flicts with the Turks, in order to re-
gain its independence, and the coun-
cils of the great powers of Europe
were friendly to the design. ]
Great struggle for indepondence . 1770
504
496
490
480
479
476
465
459
455
448
445
394
633
348
338
ore]
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
343
GREECE, continued.
The first decided movement in these lat-
ter times, by the Servians - a. d. 1800
The Servians defeat the Turks at Nyssa
April 2, 1807
100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha,
overrun the country, committing the
most dreadful excesses - - 1813
Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla-
chia, in which the Greeks join -1821
Proclamation of prince Alexander to
shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821
The Greek patriarch put to death at
Constantinople - April 23, 1821
10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al-
though not engaged in the revolt - 1821
Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha-
rest; even the women and cliildren
not spared .... 1821
Independence of Greece formally pro-
claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822
Siege of Corinth - - - Feb. 1822
Bombardment oi Scio ; its capture ;
most horrible massacre recorded ni
modern history* - April 23, 1822
Victories of the Greeks at Larissa,
Thermopylffi, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822
National Congress at Argos - April 10, 1823
Victories of Marco Botzaris - June, 1823
Lord Byron lajids in Greece, to devote
himself to its cause - August, 1823
Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis-
solon^hi - - April 1'.), 1824
Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at
Samos - - August 16, 1824
The Provisional Government of Greece
instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824
The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca-
pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825
The Provisional Government of Greece
invites the protection of England
July 24, 1825
Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging
Turks are defeated in a formidable
attack upon it - August 1, 1826
The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet
Jan, 28, 1826
Ibrahim Pacha takes Misfcolonghi by
assault . - April i», 1828
The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle
with Omer Pacha - June 1, 1826
Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the
Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826
Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug, 15, 1826
Treaty of London, between Great Bri-
tain, Russia, and France, on behalf
of Greece, signed - July 6, 1827
Battle of Navarino \which see); the
Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 18:7
Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi-
dent of Greece - - Jan, 18, 18;i8
The Panhellenion or Grand Council oi
State established - Feb, 2, 1828
National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828
Greece divided into departments, viz.
Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Messe-
nia. Lower Messenia, Laconia, and
Arcadia, and the islands formed also
into departments - April 26, 1823
Final evacuation of the Morea by the
Turks - - . Oct. 30, 1828
Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829
Greek National Assembly commences
its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829
The Porte acknowledges the indepeijc-
ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830
Prince Leopold finally declmes the so-
vereignty - - May 21, 1830
Count Capo dTstria, President of
Greece, assassinated by the brother
and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote
chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831
The assassins put to death Oct 29, 1831
Otho I, elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833
Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct, 27, 1833
A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en-
force ministerial responsibility and
national representation, is consum-
mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843
The king accepts the new constitution
March 16, 1844
[See Athens, Macedon, Sparta, Thrace, and
other states of Greece.]
GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century between the
eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a
half terminated in a separation : this church is called Greek in contradis-
tinctton from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior-
ity as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and
many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho-
lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli-
gion of Russia.
GREEK FIRE, A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli-
nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century,
* The slaughter lasted 10 days ; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire
which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000
Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, wefe induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar-
anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even tney were, every man of mem,
butchered ! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and more
beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun-
der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured city, is too long
and too shocking for transcription here.
344 THE world's progress. L^^-*
in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general
of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 30,000 men were killed. The property
of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac-
cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine-
gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of
copper, and shot out of cross-bow^s, and other spring instruments. The in-
vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ;
but il is now lost.
GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe
about A. D. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned
English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia-
tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcr to teach Erasmus,
1490. — Wood^s Athen. Oxon.
GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a, p. 980,
and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter
country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England
to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2
James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind
by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when
the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing
Company was incorporated in 1693.
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore
and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles IL, on the summit of Flamstead-hill,
so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro-
nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the
meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory
contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet
by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector.
The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re-
flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera
obscura.
GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory- XIIL,
from whom it derives its name, a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic
states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710 ; and adopted
by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca-
lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to
eleven days. See Calendar, and New Style.
GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos-
sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until. 1491 :
the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered
by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the
French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was
ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again,in
1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the
French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which
was not finally quelled till June, 1796.
GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant
" ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The
Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon-
don, incorporated in 1429.
GITADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493. It was colonized by
the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763.
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure
GUY ] DICTIONARY- OF DATES. 345
the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was,
however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814.
GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have
been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig-
nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies
during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the
Ghi])elines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal
family of England. — See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood
was instituted for tlie kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards
George IV., in 1816.
GCFILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise
obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be
seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolical Questiones of Achilles
Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there
called the MoMnaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, '!^x\g\9Xia {'SQe. Halifax ;
Maidc7i\ soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the
regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France,
from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his
name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god-
father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some
hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a
prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the
Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 2G, 1814, aged seventy-six,
enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues.
GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first
coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were
then valued at 305. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced
in currency from 225. to 2l5. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were
coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of
an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold.
(tUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber-
tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns-
wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was
known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi-
nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition,
moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his
treatise De NuKitate Magios, which was published at Oxford, in 1216.
GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by
this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des-
troying~the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there
assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was
projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the
enterprise Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords,
preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of
the famify of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood,
Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner,
as did Guy Faux. January 31. 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in
which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the •
late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices.
GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin
to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having be-
stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder
of another hospital. At the nge of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced tht^
erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It
15*
846 THE WQRLD^S PROGRESS. [ HAG
cost him 18,793^., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sum
of 219,499/. A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000?. was made to this
hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ;
his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829.
GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were
performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest-
ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna-
sium— gumnos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their
limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped.
The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in
Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826.
fiyPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu-
liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d.
1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des-
cendants of a great body of Egyptians who rev olted from the Turkish yoke,
and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their
supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal recejj. tion in ^hat age
of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and
from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe,
as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con-
trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex-
ecuted at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month,
contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London,
was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were
in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and
many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their
intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners,
customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged.
H.
HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' ITn^ of Right, passed for the security and
liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to
Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En-
gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is
shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus-
pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and
when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a
portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected
persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned.—
Blackstone.
HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob-
horse (Jiaquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly
harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle
called coche-h-haquenee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori-
fin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in
662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of
London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raisea,
1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin ; but the aristocratic taste of
Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on
the outside of the vehicle.
HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the
States-Greneral, and residence of the former earls of H'^lland, the princes of
ham] dictionary of dates. 347
Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip
n. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the re-
monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague.
entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, siffned
by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces
here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Jana<
ary, 1795; favored by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the
inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued,
and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and
escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly
after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions
and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between
England and Holland, December 16, 1837.
HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and
hence the appellation Gallia comata ; and cutting off the hair was inflicted
as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par-
ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, lo wear
long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic
institution. — Isidorus Hlspalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear
long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate
of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion
in 1795; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into
use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England,
which yielded 20,000Z. per annum,
HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after
the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the
year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase
was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or
of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human life. — Butler.
HALLIDON HILL, Battle of, near Berwick, between the English and Scots,
in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13,000 slain, while a com-
paratively small number of tlie English suffered, reign of Edward III., July
19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of
Scotland . — Robertson .
HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma-
nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys,
shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the
town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim-
inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny,
by a -peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment; but king
James I. in the year 1620, took this power away : and the town is now under
the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden,
HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the
Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The
meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were
first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro-
duction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome;
one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit.
HAMBURGH. Tlie company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296.
France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper
Tandy, (see Napper Tandy,) October 1799. British property sequestrated,
March 1801. Hamburgh taken by the French after the battle of Jena in
1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French
on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and restored to its
348 THE world's PROGIIESS. [ IIAP
independence "by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which
destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con-
tinued for three days, May 4, 1842.
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it
to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his
mother, Jane Seymour, died; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of
our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and
the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was
held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the
members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the
Bible. See Conference.
HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar-
ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble-
man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of
execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and
their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447.
— Stowe. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu-
merous cases by various statutes. See Deaths punishment of. Hanging in
chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834.
HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George
I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and
principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a.d. 1G92. It was
seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ;
and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the
crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813, and erected into a kingdom,
Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in
November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke
of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom
of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848.
HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an
act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise
of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia,
of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the
granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of
Brunswick Luneburgh^ elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the
throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714.
HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was
formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other
against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in
1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns
situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in-
creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be
admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They
grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark,
about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12.000
regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who
ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their
effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association.
In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the
name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen.
HAPSBURGH; House op. One of the most illustrious families in Europe.
Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near
Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria,
HAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349
whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century,
when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of (Germany
and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany.
HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who
so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance
used to call him Harlequino, little Harley. — Menage. Originally the name
implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at
a play-house.
H ARLOTS. Women who were called by synonj^ma conveying the meaning of
harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra-
ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her .vicious
amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes-
saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about
350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur-
rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a
character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John-
son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party ?olors,
and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III.,
1352.
HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings,
in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har-
mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather
by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eightj-one, and one hundred and forty-
four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were
first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The in-
vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760.
HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp
before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the
moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very
few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele-
brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more
ancient harps, with wire.
HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in
1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured
him the reward of 20,000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi-
tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece waj3 per-
fected in 1772.
HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from
the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration of
Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814.
HASTINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which
more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng-
land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and
kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned
king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con-
quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066.
HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India,
tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but
acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government
which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other
charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 100,000Z. from the
nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means
of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months,
350 THE world's progTress. r^^
1788-96. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has-
tings, attracted universal admiration.
HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They
are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium-
phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with rfed velvet, and
surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the
use of liats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats
were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time
both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stowe, Very high
crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns
were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng-
land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811.
HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the
English, in 1562. " It has been bombarded several times by the British navy,
in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a sta,te of blockade,
Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shippinff here failed, August 7,
1804.
, HAYTI, or Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus .n
1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de-
stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including
women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St.
Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des-
salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29,
1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines /was crowned king, by the title of Jac-
ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of
color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title
of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince.
Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died,
and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed
suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821.
Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected
president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849.
HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain-
ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was not connected, but
composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774,
ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the
name they now bear.
HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen ;
but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they
possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac-
rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the
expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter.
HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About
twenty- two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasgon and Paulson.
The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic
mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland.
HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina,
which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d, 622 ;
the era commences on the following day, viz :— the 16th of July. Many
chronologists have computed this era from the 16th July ; but Cantemir
has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the
first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Makometism
and Medina.
DOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351
HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the
river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the
famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann-
heim. Here was the celebrated Heildelberg Tun, which held 800 hogsheads,
and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of
Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346,
contained in 1840, 622 students.
HELEN, Rapk of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was tho
most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very
lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however,
she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the
court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece,
and Ulysses persuaded the suitors- to bind themselves on oath to abide by
the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character
from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of
Menelaus, Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his
hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though
not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam,
received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the
princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc-
tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife
being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his
death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc-
tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone, whom he
had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however,
still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed
it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart.
HELENA, St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival
of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it
until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India
company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by
the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it
to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's
captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5,
1821.
HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it
was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer-
chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England
by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was
ceded to Sweden. Though -a mere rock, this is an important possession of
the British crown.
HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in-
vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christo-
pher Scheiner in 1625.
HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among
the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise
above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks
was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England Wore a
plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English
kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had
a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was
surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Gwillim.
HELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate
352 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ KEh
resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied
with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery;
and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the
prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helota, and further exposed
them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo-
ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward-
ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long ; and
the sudden disapi)earance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus,
HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed
to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its
cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government
and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im-
ported from Russia in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John
Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about
100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails.
HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England
was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent,
and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828,
when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of
England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain.
HERACLID^;^, The, or the return of the Heraclidas into the Peloponnesus : a
famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his-
tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This
return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after
the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c.
HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of
the world. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the
Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a
horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which
see. Heraldiy, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed
in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next,
to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the
feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie. It was at length methodized and
perfected bv tlie crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in
1095.
HERCULANEUM. An ancientcity of Campania, overwhelmed, together with
Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was
buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper
under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which
year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil-
ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS.
were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir
William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum,
where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the
museum of Portici.
HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here-
tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca-
tholic church. — Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by
torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon
' Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretics
came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were
higJ dictionary of datks. 353
branded in the forehead, wliipped, and thrust naked into the streets in
the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hun-
ger and cold, llQO.Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession
of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re-
pealed, 25 Henry VOL, 1534-5.
HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to
avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and
meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged in
dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with-
out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli-
gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the
Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais,
and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250.
HERO AND LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so
great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the
night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to
have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 'ii-
recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews,
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from
her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 e, c.—Livy, Uerndctus.
HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as
the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to
the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British
Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750.
HERSCEffiL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re-
flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus {which
sec\ March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in
17o3 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope,
which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun-
tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles-
copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new
ncbula3, nebulous stars, planetary nebiilaj, and clusters of stars which he
had discovered.
HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Grerberge,
daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was
descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl
of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry
v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended.
There jus no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and
it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six
thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion
being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000^. three per cent, stock, was
transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the
American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again
hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion
there in 1798.
HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures
and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodward. Hiero-
glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. The
earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters,
and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi-
tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips.
HIGH CHURCH and LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by
354
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[hoi
the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for
two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions
of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents
Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who fav^ored Sa-
cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn.
He died in 1724.
HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating
the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to
British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1552. By this statute two living
witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal
of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer-
set— it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day.
By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted tliat where there was a trial
for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life
of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the
case of an indictment for murder. See Trials.
HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and
sometimes Your Gra'^e, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but
about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High-
ness and "Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty.
HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De-
luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the
sun through the zodiac. The Saraoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era,
A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations.
HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are
vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian
Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer,
are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con-
sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d.
476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d.
800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the
English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor-
ships were established by George I. and George 11. A professorship of
history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was
succeeded by Francis Boweu, 1850.
HOHENLINDEN, Battle op, between the Austrian and French armies, the
latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated
with ffreat loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and
their loss in prisoners to 10.000 more, November 3, 1800.
HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who
derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been
obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and
established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and
the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of
their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion
of Francs and Frisians.
Sovereignty nimded by Thierry, first
count of H '.land - - a. d. 868
The county o Holland devolves to the
counts of Hdinault - - - 1299
It falls to the crown of Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy - - - 1436
100,000 persons are drowned by the sea
breakms in at Don • . -1446
Burgundy and its dependencies become
a circle of the empire - - - 1521
They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and
religious persecution cause a revolt
in Batavia - - - - 1566
The revolted states with William,
prince of Orange, at their head, en-
ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1579
hol]
DIGTIONARY OF DATES.
355
HOLTiAND, continued.
They elect William as Stadtholder - 1579
The Stadtholder, William, is assassi-
nated - - - - - 1584
The Dutch East India company found-
ed - - - -
After a struggle of thirty years, the kin^^
of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba-
tavians free - - - - 1609
The republic wars a^^ainst Spain in the
East, and in America ; the Dutch ad-
miral, Peter lien, takes several Spa-
nish galleons, value 20,000,000/!. ster-
ling .....
Cromwell declares war against Hol-
land, and many naval battle.^ are
fought ; Blake signally defeats Van
Tromp ....
William, prince of Orange, havinj
married Mary, daughter of James II.
is called to the British throne
The ofiice oi' Stadtholder is made here-
ditary in the Orange family
Era of the civil war
The French Republican army march
into Holland ; the people declare in
their favor - - - - 1793
The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795
He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795
Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig-
nally defeats the Dutch - Oct, 11, 1797
The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the
line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren-
dered to the British admiral Duncan,
without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799
A new constitution is given to the Ba-
tavian republic ; the chief officer (R.
J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title
of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805
•1602
■ 1635
• 1653
1633
1747
1787
Holland erected into a kingdom, and
Louis Bonaparte declared king
June 5, 1806
Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810
Holland united to France - July 9. 1810
Restored to the house of Orange, ana
Belgium annexed to its dominions
Nov. 18, 1813
The prince of Orange is proclaimed so-
vereign prince of the United Nether-
lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813
He receives the oath of allegiance
from his subjects - March 30, 1814
And takes the title of king as William
I. - - - March 16, 1815
The revolution in Belgium (which see)
commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830
The Belgians take the city of Antwerp
(tchicu ree) - - Oct 27, 1830
Belgium is separated from Holli-nd.
and Leopold of Cobourg is elected
king - - - July 12, 1831
Holland renews the war against Bel-
gium - - - Aug 3. 1831
Conference in London on the affair^ oi
Holland and the Netherlands termi-
nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831
Treaty between Holland and Belgium,
signed in London - April 19, 1839
Abdication of William I. in favor of
his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840
Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844
The king promises his assent to all re-
forms passed by the chambers
March 14, 1848
New constitution appears, April 17, 1848
Death of William J
March 17, 1849
STADTHOLDERS, ETC.
A.D.1554 William the Great succeeds his cou-
sin Rene, to whom the United Pro-
vinces owe their foundation and glo-
ry: killed by an assassin, hired by
Philip of Spain.
1584 Henry Philip William.
1618 Maurice, a consummate general.
1625 Frederick Henry.
1647 William II.
1650 William 111. made stadtholder in 1672,
and king of England in 1689.
1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass-
ing a ferry in Holland.
1711 Charles Henry Frizo.
1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt-
holder.
1751 William V.
KINGS.
1813 William I.
1840 William H.
1849 William IIL, present king, (1852.)
See Belgium.
HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first
discovered. In 1605, etseq., various parts of the coast were traced by the
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the
south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast,
called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's
name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South Wales, and
Van Diemen^s Land,
HOLF ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and
Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them-
selves, amonff other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all
their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem-
ber 26, 1815.
HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.—
A she.
S56 THE world's progress. [ HOI
HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish the twc
most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet thai
has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of
Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after
the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con-
stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written
in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist.
The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to
mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to
sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin,
HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c.
He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another
that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not
deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister,
daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds,
assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among tbe Jews,
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly
to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high
priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power,
wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis-
tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees
of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder.
HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such
as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious
drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a
moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of
Teutonic origin. Attila, tlie devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu-
rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that he
died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed
to another cause. See Attila.
"HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis-
bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward
III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words : " Honi soit qui mal
y pense,''^ " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the
motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un-
supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith.
HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly
among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that
people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about
B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102
B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter
that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius
ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby
to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor.
HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were
used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un-
wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed,
and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there are
between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the
* The epic poems of Homkr and Virgil, the Gierusafemme of Tasso, the Paradise Lotsl of
Milton, and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist | and Milton's is considered
to rank next to Homer's. " Paradise Lost is not the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. John*
SON, " only because it is not the first." — Butler.
HUD ] DICTJOJ^ARY OF DATES. 357
culture of hops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and
Worcestershire.
HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the
Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on
each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman
knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the
Horatii, united Alba to Rome.
HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably
were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke
them in for service in war ; Avhencc arose the fable that Thessaly was ori-
ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for
his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen, — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the
horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the
work of six men. — Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering
to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were
only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced
into England b}'' William I., 1006. In England there are two millions
of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural
horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse-
tax was imposed in 178-1, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses
in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding" only in England,
amounts to about 350.000/. per year. See Race Horses.
HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem,
who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the
reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic
order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta.
HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in-
stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni-
ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark,
a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793/., and
endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499/. See Infirmaries.
HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros-
tration enjoined, in a. d, 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiflf who
decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to
the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. JRees.
HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome.
Previously to the invention of water-clocks {tahic/i see), 158 b. c, the time
was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into
twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round,
instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the
measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult: one expedient was
by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning
twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour-
glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886.
HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a
North- West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610; but in fact, this part
of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by
Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further
north. The latter ])as8ing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was,
with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. Tlie
Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions lien^ in 1070. The
forts were d(^stroved bv \h(} Frc^ich in 1086 and 1782.
358
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[lll/l^
HUE AND CjRY. The old common-law process of pursuing '' with horn and
with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers
and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa-
sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ;
but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed
by riotous assemblies.
HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term
of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the
reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The
memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St.
Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con-
siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame-
rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas.
HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was
formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I.,
1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury
and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini-
cans and Cordeliers, in 1570.
HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11
B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the
Christian era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after-
wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements
were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were
expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila,
whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of "The Scourge of
God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed
with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be-
sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians,
Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char-
lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920.
Stephen receives the title of Apostolic
king from the pope - - a. d. 997
The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061
Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under
the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout
Huugary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq.
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga-
ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1^2
Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342
He dies, and the history of Hungary
now presents a frightful catalogue of
crimes ..... 1378
Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth,
queen of Louis, is drowned, and Am^'
Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis-
mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and
causes the rivers of Hungary to flow
with blood - - ^ - - 1378
The unhappy Hungarians call the
Turks to their assistance . - 1380
Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond
in battle .... 1389
Sigismond recovers from this blow,
and makes Wallachia and Moldavia
tributary to him - • - 1390
He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and
is elected emperor oi Germany - 1410
Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne
of Hungary, thus laying the founda-
tion ofthe subsequent power and
greatness of the house of Austria - 1437
It passes to the king of Poland - 1439
Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in-
vades Hungary, and takes Buda;
battle of Monatz {which see) - - 152G
Buda sacked a second time by the
Turks, and all the inhabitants put to
the sword .... 1540
Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540
Temeswar taken by them - - 1552
Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556
The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men
in a fruitless attempt to take Buda
from the Turks - - - 1684
He at length carries Buda by stdrm,
and delivers up the Mahometans to
the fury of the soldiers . - 1686
Temeswar wrested from the Turks by
prince Eugene - - • - 1718
* The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of aueen ; and conse-
qaently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns witn the title of kinff.
Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Ojarles Duras, came to the crown, she was styled
King Mary.
flUN J
DICTION^\RY OF DATES.
359
HUNGARY, continued.
Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey
at the peace of Belgrade - - 1739
Temeswar incorporated with the king-
dom of Hungary - - - 1778
The struggle for independence com-
menced in - - - - 1848
Count I.omburg, Austrian commission-
er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27,
The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the
emperor of Austria ; martial law
proclaimed ; Jellachich, Ban of Cro-
atia, appointed to the supreme gov-
ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848
Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi-
dent of the defence committee and
dictator - - - - Oct. 1818
[Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.]
Hungarian army advances within six
miles of Vienna ; Jellachich also ad-
vances there, October 11; Kossuth
retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th,
Hungary declares itself an independent
republic - • - Dec. 1848
Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered
by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849
Ukase of Russian emperor Nicholas,
declaring his purpose of aiding Aus-
tria against Hungary - April 26,
Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren-
ders the Hungarian army to the Aus-
trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, IS-IQ
The war ended by the complete subju-
gation of Hungary, and the flight or
execution of her leaders.
See Germany,
KINGS OF HUNGAIIY.
A, D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king.
1038 Peter I., deposed.
1041 Otto, killed in battle.
1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is
again "deposed, and has his eyes put
out.
1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother
Bela.
1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous
tower.
1063 Solomon, deposed by his son.
1073 Geiea I.
1076 St. Ladislaus.
1095 Coloman.
1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn-
ed monk.
1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by
his uncle Coloman, so that his queen
ruled the kingiloni.
1141 Geisall.
1161 Stephen III.
1173 Bela III.
1191 Emeric.
12(X) Ladislaus II.
1201 Andrew II.
1235 Bela IV.
1275 Stephen IV.
1278 Ladislaus III., murdered.
1291 Andrew III.
1301 Wenceslaus.
1304 Otho.
1309 Charles Robert.
1342 Louis I. the Great.
1383 Mary.
1389 Mary, and her husband Sigism tid.
1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons.
1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the
Turks.
1444 Ladislaus v., poisoned while an infant.
1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re-
gent.
1490 Ladislaus VI.
1516 Louis n. drowned whilst fighting the
Turks.
1526 John Sepusius, deposed.
1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia.
1534 John Sepusius, again.
1.539 John II.
1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor of
Germany.
1573 Rodolphus.
1609 Matthias II.
1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany.
1625 Ferdinand III., ditto.
1647 Ferdinand IV.
1656 Leopold, emperor of Gennany.
1687 Joseph, ditto
1711 Charles VI ditto.
1740 Maria Theresa,
1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany.
See Germany.
On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had
married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her
father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length
overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary,
Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See
Germany.
HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200
years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d. 93, and
the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the
Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their
arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by
them, about a. d. 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham-
pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles
during eight years, and were aluKxsi ixlirpated and soon ceased to appear a.<>
360 THE world's progress. f lAIi
a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the
name of Hungary, which see ; see also Attila.
HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to
issue a bull against heretics, Huss, Avho had been zealous to promote a refor-
mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give
an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis-
mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the
strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon
thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be
burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig-
nation, July 6, 1416. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same
fortitude and constancy of mind by Jeromk or Prague, the intimate com-
panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup-
porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 141G.
See Cra7imer, and Martyrs.
HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as
they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup-
posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their
first onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were
oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on
their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather,"
— Pardon.
HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth
century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia; but it is
not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs
of it are to be found. — Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d.,
and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science
in 1746.
HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about
300 B. c. The pressure of fiuids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250
B. c. The forciug-pumj) and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120
B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The
science was revived by Galileo, about a. u. IGOO. The theory of rivers was
scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fiuids and oscilla-
tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given
to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738.
HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise
of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and
Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said
to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches,
about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with
trumpets, drums, and cymbals.
I.
IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of
Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over
Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained^ her with jokes,
stories, and poetical eftusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have
been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about
700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam-
bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father i)referred another suitor,
richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on the
old man's avarice, that he handed h'un^vM'.—H'.'rof/ofus.
IDO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 361
ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than the water which
composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1697. Ice produced in summer by
means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782.
Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a
vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common
salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the
zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze
mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid,
so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold.
ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor,
of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to
Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are
capable of containing 141,332 tons.
ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to
leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had
been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the
Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol-
canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and
a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to
pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising
to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that
flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken
breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally
overwhelmed by fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured.
ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their
library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September
26, 1847.
ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by
some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen-
tation. "Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter
with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a
chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his
heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her aegis ; Venus,
drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- -
lo§^y gave rise to the later worship of the sun, inoon, stars, and other objects ;
and to the representation of the true God in various forms; and to images.
The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the
early part of the eighth century. See Idols.
IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each
month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was
the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones,
and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on
which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other
conspirators, 44 b. c.
IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In-
sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national
institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is
one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in
every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812.
IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni-
nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi-
nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy.
Constantino, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de-
stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a, d. — Dufresnoy. In Britain, the
16
362 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ mp
religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti-
tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon
overspread, the country with them : they had a god for every day in the
week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after
the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity.
ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c.
Troy {which see)^ another city, was founded by Troas, about 1841 b. c. ; and
Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296
years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The
Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen,
whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus,
king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged
in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns
and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten
years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the
inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 b. c.—ApoUo-
dorus.
ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho-
kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of
1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants ft-om other states since 1800. In 1789 it
was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri-
tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population
in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,675 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in-
exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847.
ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were
called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575; and after their suppression in Spain,
they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou-
chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and
attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret
society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May,
1776.
ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments,
drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of
freat antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted.
arro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with
their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat.
IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia-
ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th
and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the
great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia-
ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb.
13, 1788 ; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal.
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806.
Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke of
York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal.
Trial of Caroline, queen of Greorge IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be-
fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on
her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place,
Nov. 10, 1820. See Ciueen of George IV.
IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of
Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit
ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual
peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, January 22, 1801.
IMP J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since
the passing of the Reform Bill {which see), in 1832, there are 471 English;
29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members — in all 658. In the Lords,
459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers
of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords,
Parliament, and Reform.
IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. See Exports, (fee.
Table, p. 317.
VALUE OP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.
In 1710 - je4,753,777 I In 1800 - X30,570,605 I In 1830 - je46,a45,241
1750 - . 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - - 62,004,000
14,815,855 1 1820
- 36,514,564 | 1845
- 85,281,953
1 MPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im-
postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every
country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from
various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : —
Boleyn. She and her confederates were
hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.--
Rapin.
In the first year of Mary's rei^n, after her
marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth
Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se-
creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made
for the purpose, uttered many seditious
speeches against the queen and the prince,
and also against the mass and confession,
for which she was sentenced to stand upon
a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser-
mon-time, and make public confession of
her imposture, 1553 : she was called the
Spirit of the Wa.\L— Baker's Chron.
William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our
Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy,
34 Eliz., 1591.
James Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he
was convicted of blasphemy, scourged,
and his tongue bored through with a hot
iron on the pillory, by sentence of the
House of Commons, under Cromwell's
administration, 1656.
Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor,
who pretended to cure all diseases by
stroking the patient ; his imposture de-
ceived the credulous, and occasioned very
warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in
England, where it fell into disrepute, in
1666, upon his examination before the
Royal Society, after which we hear no
more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the
Hoy- Society.
Dr. Til us Oates. See Conspiracies.
Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending
she bred rabbits within her, so imposed
upon many persons (among others, Mr.
Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre-
tended he had a letter from the Redeem-
er, which fell from heaven at .Jerusalem ;
he seduced multitudes to follow him into
woods and deserts, and to live in imitation
of John the Baptist.
Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to
be the angel Michael j he was burnt by
the inquisition of Spam, in 1360,
George David, son of a waterman at Ghent,
styled himself the nephew of God, sent
into the world to adopt children worthy of
heaven; he denied the resurrection,
preached against marriage, in favor of a
community of women, and taught that
the body only could be defiled by'sin ; he
had many foUowere ; died at Basle, ]556.
Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre-
tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of
Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had
put to death ; but he maintained that ano-
ther child had been substituted in his
place : he was supported by the arms of
Poland* his success astonished the Rus-
sians, who invited him to the throne, and
delivered in:o his hands Fedor, the reign-
ing czar, and all his family, whom he
cruelly put to death : his imposition being
discovered, he was assassinated in his
palace, 1606. — D'Alenibert's Rev olict ions
of Russia.
Sa.bbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused
the Turks and Jews a long time at Con-
stantinople and other places, by person-
ating our Saviour, 1666,
IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH
HISTORY,
^wo men crucified, both pretending to be
the Messiah ; and two women executed for
assuming the characters of the Virgin
Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III.,
1221.
Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of
Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma-
tion, by pretending to inspirations from
heaven, fortelling that the king would have j
an early and violent death if he divorced
Catherine of Spain, and married Anne
St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they
espoused her cause, 1726.
The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William
Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762.
Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her
conception of the Messiahj and had a mul
titude of followers; she died in Dec. 1814
IN THE UNITED STATES.
Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to
be the Messiah, New- York. 1830-31.
Joseph Smith, See article Mormotis.
IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient
364 THE world's progress. [mD
practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well
known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1365.
Pressinff, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri-
tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service
above 65, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at
sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons,
and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub-
lic boards, and none except by an ofiicer with a press- warrant.
INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and
Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and
it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528.
lN(yEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and
Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in-
stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his
brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his
brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt.
In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own
daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria,
queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and
the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar-
ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of
Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna,
in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was
early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the
Commonwealth, in 1650.
INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost.
In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons,
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with
France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in
1802 ; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per
cent, on all incomes above 150/., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In
1806, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent,
embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced —
In 1804, at Is. in the pound - JE4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - jEl 1,500,000
In 1805, at Is. 2d. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985
The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657.937/. ; from fund-
ed and stock properties, 2.885 505/. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088/.
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/. ; total, sixteen millions and a half
Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax
of 21. 185. Ad. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22,
1842; it produced about 5,350,000/. a year. This tax was renewed for three
years more, in March, 1845.
INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland? They
are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation
may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa-
sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm
that one church may advise, or reprove another, but has no authority to ex-
communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was
that by Henry Jacobs, 1616.
INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent.
ind]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
365
1000
1205
1237
1398
1399
1497
I
I
1525 j
1555 I
1G60
1738
1738
1739
1749
The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was
forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of
pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works
of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited.
— Ashe.
INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty-
rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by
Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and
the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is
reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. —
Rennel.
whom 123 perish in one night. See
Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756
Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards
lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at
Plassey - - June 20, 1757
Warren Hastings becomt« governor of
Benfral - - - April 13, 1772
India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773
Supreme court established - - 1773
Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778
The strong fortress of Gualiortaken by
major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778
Ilyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and
defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780
lie takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780
Lord Macartney arrives as governor of
Madras - . - June 22, 1781
Ilyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre
Coote - - - -July 1,178)
Deatli of Ilyder, and accession of his
son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. U, 1782
Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast-
ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1788
Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two
sons hostages - - March 19, 1792
Government of lord Mornington, after-
wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798
Seringapatani stormed, and Tippoo
Saib killed - - May 4, 1799
Victories of the British ; the Carnatic
conquered .... 1800
Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803
Marquis Comwallis resumes the gov-
ernment - - July 30, 1805
Act by which the trade to India was
thrown open ; that to China remain-
ing with the company July 31, 1813
Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823
Lord William Bentinck arrives as go-
vernor-general - - July 4, 1828
Act opening the trade to India, and tea
trade, «&c. to China, forming a new
era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833
Lord Auckland, governor-general; he
leaves England - - Sept. 1835
Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John,
now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny)
July 23, 1S39
Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty,
and he and the British army enter
Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839
English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 1840
Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at
his funeral his successor is killed by
accident, and Dost Mahomed, next
heir, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, 18W
General rising against the British at
Irruption of the Mahometans, under
Mahmud Gazni - - a. d.
Patna, or Afghan empire founded
Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most
bloody conquerors of the world ;
14,000,000 of the human race perish
by his sword, under the pretence of
establishing the worship of one god ;
he died - - - - -
The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct
of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer-
lane, invade Hindostan
Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de-
feats the Indian army, makes a con-
quest of Hindostan, and butchers
100,000 of its people -
The passage to India discovered by
Vasco da Gama
Conquest of the country completed by
the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo-
gul empire ....
Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the
greatest prince of Hindostan -
Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions
extending from 10 to 35 degrees in
latitude, and nearly as much in longi-
tude, and his revenue amounting to
32,000,000/. sterling -
Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or
Kouli Khan ....
At Delhi he orders a general massacre,
and 150,000 persons perish -
He carries away treasure amounting
to 125,000,'300/. sterling
Defeat of the last imperial army by the
Rohillas ....
[The Moguf empire now became mere-
ly nominal, distinct and independent
sovereignties being formei by nu-
merous petty princes. The empe-
rors were of no political consequence
from this period.
BRITISH POWER IN INDIA.
Attempt made to reach India by the
north-east and north-west passages - 1528
Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579
Levant company make a land expedi-
tion to India .... 1589
First adventure from England - - 1591
First charter to the London company
of merchants .... 1600
Second charter to the East India com-
pany - - - - - 1609
Calcutta purchased - - - 1698
Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla.
See Calcutta. .... 1756
He imprisons 146 BritisR subjects, of
366 THE world's progress. [ind
INDIA, continued.
Cabul; Sir Alexander Bumes and
other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841
Lord Ellenborough appointed governor-
general - - . Oct. 13, 1841
Sir William Macnaghten treacherously
assassinated - - Dec. 25, 1841
The British, under a convention, evacu-
ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale,&c., as
hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ;
a dreadful massacre ensues • Jan. 6, 1842
Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Char-
les Napier; Scinde is afterwards an-
nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843
Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ;
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib-
raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 1843
Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover-
nor-general - - May 2, 1844
The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river,
and attack the British post at Feroze-
Eore, which was held by Sir John
THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH.
The citadel of Lahore is occupied by
the British under Sir Hugh Gough ;
and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846
Great battle between the British under
Lord Goush, and the Sikhs under
Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1848
Moultan taken, after a long sieere, Jan. 3, 1849
Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough
Feb. 21, 1849
The Punjaub formally annexed to the
British crown - March 29, 1849
Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1&15
Battle of Aliwal : the Sikhs defeated
Jan. 28, 1846
Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated
with immense loss in killed and
drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846
[The Sikhs lost 10,000 men: the British
2,338 in killed and wounded.]
INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En-
glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted
out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three
years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another
ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to
a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600.
Their stock then consisted of 72,000^., and they fitted out four ships, and
meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold
at 500Z. for a share of lOOZ., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698 ;
and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en-
larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784.
INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the
British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India,
passed June 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill
passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr.
JPitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784.
INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from
South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several
plants produce various kinds of elastic gum; but that in commerce is
chiefly the juice of the Siphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in the
bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub-
stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly
elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions
made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it
flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer.
INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the
French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made
by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Sufiercd
much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into
the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840.
685,866.
[NDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent
continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They
have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the
white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers
IND ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367
are yearly becoming smaller. • King Philip's Indian war in New England,
1676. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At-
tacked by Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver-
hiU, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the
French, 1754-9 ; Clierokees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763.
[During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both
sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with
the Creeks, 1790 ; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe,
1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty
with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Dela wares, 1804 ; Gov, Harrison de-
feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida,
Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack-
son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with
Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed
May 27, 1882 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1882 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug.
27, 1832 ; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832 ; war against the
Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines,
Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows :
Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for
them west of the Mississippi - - . . . . 31,357
Number yet to be removed -.-...--• 72,181
Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the, Mississippi and the Rocky
Mountains ...... 150,341
Total within the territory of the United States - - 352,879
Treaty with the Sioux, they relinqui^shing 5,000,000 acres w^est of Missis-
sippi for S1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell
alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo-
rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans,
Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandarfs
tribe entirely destroyed — Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the
Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June
28, 1839; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet^
ing for a treaty at the Falls of Sfc. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians
in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri-
soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe
engagement. Nov. 29, 1847.
[NDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used
in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage
round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian producte,
partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through
AT-abia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so
little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by
letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality
of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call
indicuni is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men-
tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to
Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina,
in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 6,831,2691b.,
and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b.
INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. Ill,, about a. d. 800 ; were
much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro-
man pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement
V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1617,
Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac-
tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1617, and to the Reformation in
368 I'fiK world's progress. [ mo
England, in 1534. — Bowers Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the
pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre-
sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and
signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe.
INFIRMARIES. Ancient l^ome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis-
eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of .^sculapius for a cure,
as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder-
working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra-
vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and
the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste-
ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be
visited, a. d. 866. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen-
tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir-
maries, occurs in 14^7 .—Beckmann. See Hospitals.
INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they
being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in-
formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to
Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particiilarly in London,
numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per-
sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed,
subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class.
INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivorj'-black, and
Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had likewise various
colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. . Red ink was made by them of ver-
milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and
must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages,
most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity.
It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com-
posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann.
INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different
periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of
which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the
Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights
Templars, 32 Henry II. 1186. The inner and Middle Temple were made
inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Owter not until the
reign of Elizabeth, about 1660. — Stowe's Survey.
INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in
England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian-
ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the
first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721.
TTie practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy
from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr.
Jenner, January 21, 1799 ; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had
been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was
voted 10,000^. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na-
poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe-
berated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and
subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a
• Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair by our grandfathers. The London Daily
Ad(oertiBer (Nov. 7. 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomas
Davison, esq., of Blakeetone, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are
both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, ana Dr
Dimfidale of London moculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox.
INS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369
point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the
United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800. See Small P^.-cand Vaccination.
INQUISmON". Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishops
only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica-
tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as
were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates.
This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power
was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con-
vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth
century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui-
sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was
instituted by pope Innocent IIL, in 1203 j and Gregory IX. in a council held
at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of
it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the
direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was estabUshed in France,
by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was
established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated
in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the
work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exer-
cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva-
tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books.
INSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than
tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than
it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in
England is as follows: lunatics 6806— idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but
allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14.000 — an ave-
rage of one to every tfiousand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 —
idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns,
they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland
has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num-
ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however,
were not completed. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons
and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums
capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of
late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica,
formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this
cause.
INSOLVENCY in tup: UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis'
was at its height. The ' heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone
amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans
to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov.
1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay-
ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately
after.
INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it
was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were
passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The
benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England,
by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a
period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose
debts are less than 300Z., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose
compositions, and have pi'o tern, protection from all process against his per-
son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844.
INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that
IG*
370
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[INIJ
Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use
in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in
Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601.
Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year
following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for
insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of
the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular
oflSce set up in London was the Hand-in- Hand ^ in 1696. A duty was laid
on insurances of l5. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was
increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first in-
surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained.
fNSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa-
chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur-
rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts
of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots,- &>c.
INTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twtlfth cen-
tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles
V. in 1560. — Robertson, Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow-
ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there-
fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in
England at ten per cent., 87 Henry VIII., 1546. This law was repealed by
■ Edward VI.; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch
could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest
was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21
James I,, 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so
confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at
which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14
George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury,
and punishable by the statute. — Blackstone. The law does not now apply to
bills having only 60 days to run. See Usur^j Laws.
INTEREST OF MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in difier-
ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn.,
N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca,, Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso.,
Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In
N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and
Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the
whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury,
and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void
in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Oliio, Ark.
INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous
catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most
remarkable: —
An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned
more than 400 families, T^.—Fordun.
Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town
and harbor of Ostend totally immersed,
1108. The present city was built above a
league from the channel where the old one
lies submerged. — Uistoire de Flandre.
At the Texel, which first raised the com-
merce of Amsterdam, 1400.
The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72
villages, and 100,000 people, and formed
the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17, 1446.
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and
carried away men, women, and children,
in their beds, aid covered the tops of many
mountains ; the waters settled upon the
lands, and were called The Great Waters
for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.—
Hollinshcd.
A general inundation by the failure of the
dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number of
- drowned said to have been 400,000.
At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish-
ed, 1617.
An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock
opened, and poured out water to the height
of a church steeple, 1686.— Fit/e Phil.
Trans.
Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants
were drowned, and incredible damage was
done at Hamburg, 1717.
At Madrid, several of the Snanish nobilitf
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
low J
INUNDATIONS, co7itinued.
and other persons of distinction perished,
1723.— Dm Fresnoy.
In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their
lives by the torrents from the mountains,
Sept. 1787.
At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the
Danube, by which 24 villages and their
inhabitants were swept away, April 1811.
By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish
corps of ^300 men, on a small island near
Widdin, were surprised, and met instant
death, Sept. 14, 1813.
In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the
ruin of the French army under Macdonald
was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po-
land 4000- lives were supposed to have
been lost, same year.
In Germany, 119 villages were laid under
water, and great loss of life and property
was sustained, in March 1816.
Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by
the Vistula breakin,^ through some of its
dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and
4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous
571
At Vienna, the dwellings of 60,000 of its In-
habitants laid under water, Feb. 1^0.
10,000 houses swept away, aid fibout 1000
persons perished, at Cantorj, lE Ghma, in
consequence of an inundation, occasioned
by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca-
lamity was produced by the same cause
in other parts of China, Oct. 1833.
Awful inundation in France ; the Saone
poured its waters into the Rhone, broka
through its banks, and covered 60,000
acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon
100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses
were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and
Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such
a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4,
1810.
Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or-
leans, 160 squares and IbOO houses flood-
ed. May 12, 1849.
The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi,
&c., at different times, have caused great
destruction of property, and (at times) of
life.
lives lost, April 9, 1829.
INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish
church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the
prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great,
about A. D. 693. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by
calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di-
vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca-
nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives
gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies,
prayers and oblations for and to them.
IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a
manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with
great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a
violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable
blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel-
low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of
iodine form iodic acid.
IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty
of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and
Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power,
November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of
England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands
are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the
seat of government.
IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement
on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about 1360 b. c. — Vitruvius by
PerrauU.
IONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 670 b. c.
This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under
the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax-
imenes, Auaxagoras. and Archelaus, the master of Socrates.
IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses-
sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803
tinder the general name of Louisiana, First purchase of land from the
Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter-
ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 48,111.
372
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[IRO
IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the de-
feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo-
nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas-
sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and
10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in-
ikntry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Anti-
gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch.
IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country waa
originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the
first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about
2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was
followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali-
cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171
kings.
Arrival of Heremon - -B.C. 1070
A colony from Spain bring with them
the Pncenician letters, about - - 500
Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. d. 448
The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is
crowned at Tara - - - 1002
Battle of Clontarf, which terminates
the power of the Danes - - 1039
[In the twelfth century Ireland is divi-
ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster,
Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and
Munster ; besides a number of petty
principalities, whose sovereigns con-
tinually war with each other.]
Adrian IV. permitted Henry II, to in-
vade Ireland, on condition that he
compelled every Irish family to pay
a carolus to the Holy See, and held
it as a fief of the church - -1157
Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re-
ceives the submissions of the kings
and princes of the country, settles the
government upon a footing similar to
that of England, and makes his son
John lord of Ireland - - - 1172
Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210
English laws and customs introduced
by king John - - - - 1210
Henry VIII. assumes the title of king^
instead of tore? of Ireland - -1542
The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to
expel the English, and cruelly mas-
sacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster, '
to the number of 40,000 persons, com-
menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641
Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole
island to obedience between 1649 and 1656
Landing of king William III. at Car-
rickfergus - - June 14, 1690
Battle of the Boyne; the Duke of
Schomberg killed - July 1. 1690
Memorable Irish rebellion commenced
May 4, 1798} and was not finally sup-
pressed until the next year - - 1799
Legislative Union of Great Britain and
Ireland - - - .Jan. 1, 1801
Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803
Roman Catholic emancipation. (See
Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829
Great repeal movement; meeting at
Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843
O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1&44
O'Connell died at Genoa, aet. 72, May 15, 1847
Famine and great distress in Ireland
throughout - ... 1847
Relieved by England, and by voluntary
gifts from the United States.
Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland
passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847
Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848
Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848
Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel-
lion put down
- Aug. 5, 1848
IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the
mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles.
The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass
to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain.
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were
placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds.
Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of
Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex,
in 1643. — Rymer^s Fc£,dera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into
bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first
introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of
iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamc^rs,
dwj., see Steamers.
* "rtiere is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing twenty
four pounds. — Anon.
ITA ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 373
IRON-MASK, THE MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a
mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar-
guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was
treated with profound respect ; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him
if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his
table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an
Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died
ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois,
son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp
before Dixmude. More beheve him to have been the celebrated duke of
Beaufoi t, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ;
while ^till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon-
mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on
Tower-hill. But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been
a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, his father being the duke
of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con-
cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have
caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703.
ISL AMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca,
where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two
Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the
other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his
Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times
from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he
publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of
God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, c^c.
ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500; but the Dutch
were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at
Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and
many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos-
session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMaurUius.
ISMAEL, SfEGE OF, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who
lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December
22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa-
vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting
of 30,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow,
not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of
his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were
murdered in cold blood.
ISSUS, Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle
with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his cpieen and family are cap-
tured, 333 B. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse
in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus
Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot
and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were
left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin.
ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received
their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti-
tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted
in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred
and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it, 1259 b. c—
Arundelian Marbles.
ITALY, The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re-
ceived its name from Italus, a king of the country, or from Italos, a Greek
word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progeny of
sr4
THE world's progress.
[JAO
Meshech, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites oi
Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into
Italy, while other colonists arrived fVom Greece, and the country was di-
vided into three grand parts, viz.— -Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the
Celts ; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna
Graecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy
may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely
to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the
Kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Viev^s.
. 553
568
596
697
774
800
Rome taken and plundered by the Visi-
goths linder Alaric, See Rome a. d. 410
The Huns ravage the Roman empire
under Attila, " the Scourge of God" • 447
The Western Roman empire is de-
stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader,
Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476
The reign of Totila, who twice pillages
Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to
such distress, that the ladies and peo-
Ele of quality are obliged to beg for
read at the doors of the Gotlis - 511 to 552
The power of the Goths destroyed, and
their kingdom overthrown by the ge-
nerals of the Eastern empire -
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the
Lombards from Germany into this
country ....
The Lombards overrun Italy
Venice first governed by a doge
Charlemagne invades Italy -
He repairs to Rome, and is crowned
emperor of the West -
[During the reign of Charlemagne, the
pope of Rome, who had hitherto been
merely a spiritual minister, finds
means to assume a temporal power,
not only independent of, but superior
to all others.]
Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus-
es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053
Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde-
brand, pretends to universal sove-
reignty, in which he is assisted by the
countess Matilda, mistress of the
greater part of Italy, who makes a do-
nation of all her estates to the Church 1076
Disputes between the popes and empe-
rors, relative to the appointment of
bishops, begin about 1 106, and agitate
Italy and Germany during several
centuries.
The Venetians obtain many victories
over the Eastern emperors - -1125
Tuscany becomes independent ■ - 1208
The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and
Reggio are created - - - 1228
Milan erected into a duchy - - 1277
The papal seat removed for seventy
years to Avignon, in France - - 1308
The cardinals not agreeing in the elec-
tion of a pope, they set fire to the con-
clave, and separate, and the papal
chair is left vacant for two years - 1314
Louis Gonzaga makes himself master
of Mantua, with the title of imperial
vicar - . - . 1328
Lucca becomes an independent repui
lie 1370
Naples conquered by CJfarles VIII. - 1492
The republic of Venice loses all its Ita-
lian provinces in a single campaign,
assailed by the pope, the emperor,
and the kings of Spain and France - 1509
Leo X. having exhausted all his finan-
ces, opens the sale of indulgences and
absolutions, which soon replenishes
his treasury- .... 1517
Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545
Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of
Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569
Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen-
dar. See Calendar - - - 1582
Ambassadors from Japan to the pope.
See Jeddo - - - - 1619
The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese,
and choose Theodore for their king.
See Corsica .... 1736
Milan vested in the house af Austria by
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748
Division of the Venetian states by
France and Austria - - - 1797
Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by
Bonaparte - - - - - 1798
The Italian republic - - - 1802
Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo-
leon crowned - - - - 1805
Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of
Italy 1805
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow
of Napoleon - - - - 1814
[The various other events relating to
Italy will be found under the respec-
tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy, Mi-
lan, Naples, Rome, Venice, 4*c.]
The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23,677,000.—
Aim , de Gotha.
J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du
Fresnoy.
JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re-
volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association
of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate
/AN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373
political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins fi'om their
meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu.
merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin-
cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was,
to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the
national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They
are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo-
cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand
spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The
religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules
of St. Dominick. See Dominicans.
JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba-
rada3us, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and
seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites.
They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul-
sion in 1688. Those who oi)enly appeared in arms for, or who expressed
their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites j the dis-
tinction is now entirely lost.
JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked,
and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history,
the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona-
parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in
June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted.
JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from
the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables
in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St.
Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was
desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June
1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose
against the English, and Avere not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous
hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October
1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which
numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy-
ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared
the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26,
1843. The Cholera in 1850.
JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly
reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by
Amuratli I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to
an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them
were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman
was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards.
JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres,
about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his '^Augusli-
?m5," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace,
and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro-
versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur-
ban VIII.
JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a
divinity among the early Romans. See 7iext article. January was added to
the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol-
stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside
over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces,
376 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ JEN
because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked
towards the new year, and on the 5ther towards the old one. On the first
day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other
presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among
us, was originally taken.
JANUS, Temple of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in
the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during
above 700 years, viz : — under Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ;
and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed
in war.
JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after
an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was
driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About
this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher,
and Napoleon and prince Sehwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris,
March 31, 1814.
JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and
was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as
the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins
with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year
660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num-
ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under-
went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See
Jeddo.
JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch,
sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740,
and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon
their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August
8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary
prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland
in 1814.
JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num-
nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the
court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion,
which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis-
sionaries; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over-
turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622, and the
inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of
indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars
of massive gold and plates of gold cover its thVee towers, each nine stories
high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con-
cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city.
JEMMAPPES, Battle op, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern
times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in
woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number
of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle,
wbish lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the
number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that
of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792.
JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the
French and Prussian armies: the one commanded by the emperor Na-
poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with
the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In
JESj DICTIOxNARY OF DATES. 377
this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to
Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806.
JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy
of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con-
queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A
body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and
compelled him to sign a capitulation ; but major Pierson, the commander of
the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked
the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war ; but he was
killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781.
JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found-
ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October
30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ;
Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by
Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one
of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews
perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by
the emperor Adrian, a. n. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu-
doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Saracens
in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70.000 infidels were put to the sword,
1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from
the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the
Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in
February 1799. See Jews.
JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as '•' a witty and jocose
person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other
men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English
kings kept jesters, and particularTy the Tudors. There was a jester at court
in the reign of James L, but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards.
JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized),
a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army.
Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d.
1521, devote(l himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi-
litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi-
cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order
in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who
made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of
chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the
holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by
which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken
off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and
Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow-
erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries,
the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable
globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Paris. The
Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution,
as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithf\il.
Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order,
have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng-
land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put
down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated,
1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV.
in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerated in other states,
378
THE world's progress.
[jew
and e\en where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se-
cret and extensive existence.
JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 26, a. m. 4004, in the year of
Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence-
ment of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and
his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted
the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri-
day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended
to heaven from Mount OUvet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and his
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24,
A. D. 33.
JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex-
travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia
Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916^. sterling. Jewels
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex-
tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress.
JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the SeleucidsB until
the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them.
They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 8760 years
and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish
time to ours, subtract 3761 years.
JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They
derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa-
ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b, c. See Tabular
Views, p. 6 to p. 42.
JEWS, Modern History of.
Titus takes Jerusalem; the city and
temple are sacked and burnt, and
1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi-
tudes destroying themselves a. d.
100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur-
dered by the^Jews about Cyrene
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects
a temple to Jupiter - - - 130
More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain
by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136
[They are now banished from Judea by
an edict of the emperor, and are for-
bidden to return, or even to look back
upon their once flourishing and be-
loved city, on pain of death. From
this perioci, the Jews have been scat-
tered among all other nations.]
GENERAL HISTORY.
Jews first arrive in England - - 1078
Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at
a solemnization of the Passover, thev
sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich
tradesman at Paris, for which the
criminals are executed, and all Jews
banished France - - - 1080
The Jews massacred in liOndon, on the
coronation-day of Richard I., at the
instigation of the priests - - 1039
600 bemg besieged in York castle by
the mob, they cut each other's throats
to avoid their fury - - - 1190
Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their
eyes or teeth plucked out, and num-
bers inhumanly butchered, by king
John 12(M
They circumcise and attempt to cruci-
fy a child at Norwich ; the offenders
are condemned in a fine of 20,000
marks 1235
They crucify a child at Lincoln, for
which eighteen are hanged - - 1253
700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew
having forced a Christian to pay him
more than 2s. per week as interest
upon a loan of 20s.— <S'^o?/?e - -1262
Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free-
hold, passed ... - 1269
Every Jew lendmg money on interest
compelled to wear a plate on his
breast signifying that he was a usu-
rer, or to^quit the realm - - 1274
267 Jews hanged and quartered for
clipping coin .... 1277
They crucify a child at Northampton,
for which fifty are drawn at horses'
tails and hanged . - - 1282
15,660 Jews are apprehended in one
day, and are all banished England. —
Rapin ..... 1287
Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the
peasantry; 500 defend themselves in
a castle, where, for want of weapons,
they throw their children at their en-
emies, and then destroy one another 131
A fatal distemper raging in Europe,
they are suspected of having poison-
ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas-
sacred.— Lenglet. • - - 1343
500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and
150,000 from Portugal - - 1492
They are banished France - - 1494
After having been banished England
365 years, they are re-admitted bjr
Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with
Manasseh Ben Israel
-1652
jud]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
379
JEWS, coiiiinued.
Statute to naturalize them in England,
passed ----- 1753
This act repealed on the petition of all
the cities in England - - - 1754
The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and
Avignon are declared to be citizens
of France . - - - 1790
Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris,
convened by the emperor Napoleon
.Ian. 20, 1807
London Society for promoting Christi-
anity among the Jews - - 1808
Alexander of Russia grants land on the
sea of Azoph to converted Jews,
Sept. 1, 1820
Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng-
land, lost on the second reading, by a
majority in tlie Commons, 228 against
165 - - - May 17, 1830
Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff
of London ; and knighted by the
queen, being the first Jew on whom
that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837
Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per-
mitting the title of citizen of the first 0
class to be held by any Jew who ren-
ders himself worthy of it - -1839
Owing to the disappearance of a Greek
priest, a per-^ecution of the Jews be-
gan at Dan ascus.— See Bamasctta
Feb. 1, 1810
JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine
of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of
Arc i)retended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles
VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised
the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En-
glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the
enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession
of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429.
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct.
She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed
any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne,
May 25, 1481 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a
witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her
age. — Voltaire'' s Pucelle (V Orleans.
JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well
known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and
since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard
Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses.
JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty
years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by
pope Boniface VIII. , in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years
by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban
VI. to every thirty-third j^ear ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at
which period it is now fixed,
JTJDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius
Anglm : these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's
Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius AngCice
was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I.
1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land ; and in 1361, Wil-
liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent-
ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des-
potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of
Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench,
1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1536.
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench
and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of
them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the
crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by
the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the
judges in England was established by making their appointments patents
for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges,
380 THE world's progress. [ JUt
one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as
vice-chancellor. May 6, 1813.
JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in
number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and
Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have
been John Jay, appointed, 1789 ; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796 j Oliver
Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir-
> cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States
are thus appointed ; —
By the Governor and Legislature^ or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and
Michigan.
By the Legislature alone, ^ in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas,
Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois.
By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky.
By popular vote^ in Mississippi and in New York *
The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good
behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois.
Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut.
Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri.
For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala-
bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; and for
one year in RhodeJsIand, and Vermont.
They are removable —
By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court
of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As-
sembly, in New York.
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of
Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire
land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Court?,
of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad— from the Courts of the
Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William
IV. 1833.
JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera-
tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two
rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil-
lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god
is stated at 1,200,000 annually : of these a great many never return, and
to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones : the
temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years.
JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re-
duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Caecilius
Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and
afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to
Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been
immortalized by the pen of Sallust.
JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the
lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980
' The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consti
jur] dictionary of dates. 381
years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput-
ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun-
dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian
period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from
4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year,
JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of
C. Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month
in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the
year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year.
JUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year.
It had its name Junius, which some derive i Junone, and others d> Juniori-
bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons.
When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is
now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year.
JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political
writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They
were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power-
ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British
literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes,
Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J.
Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge-
neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but the matter is still
hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall
perish with me." — Junius.
JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for-
mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens,
made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this
chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter
were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed
some acquaintance with them about twenty years before.
JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep-
tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen
appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property,
and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false
verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed
to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of
the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be
one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353.
By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge
peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament,
and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge
any of his peers.
JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used
to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common
law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A
jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree
upon a verdict ; and maybe confined without meat, drink, or candle, till
they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their
pockets, when tliey were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though
they did not eat \t—Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able 'to
agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the
court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791 . —
Phillips.
382 THE world's progress. [ KIE
JUSTICES OF THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex-
tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish-
ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the
peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076.
—Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment,
and the tenure is dififerent in different States ; it is usually for seven years.
JUSTINIAJ^ CODE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute
law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529.
To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and
Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body
of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 633. — Blair.
K.
KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro-
duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr.
Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument
perfected in 1817. when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in-
tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the
formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number.
KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis-
covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of
by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may bo
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year
being dreary winter.
KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected
subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most
picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred
on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en-
tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment
of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily lOOOZ. a vast
expenditure in those times.
KENIUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone,
an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First wliite settlement near Lexington, 1775.
Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad
mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73.677 ; in 1810, 406,511 ,
in 1830, 688,844; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves.
KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny,
about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of
Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form
was a sirajjle crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient
keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze.
The late Francis Douce, asq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter-
minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this
description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again
upon divorce or separation.
i\IEL, Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan-
uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously
the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent
a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission
was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway,
and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions,
but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the
diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king.
KIN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383
KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian ReiSy the Spanish Rey, the French Roi^
all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first
founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in
Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the
earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states
were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians
understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo-
ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the
sovereign was as much bound by the ]aws as his meanest subject : there was
a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public
and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should
devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice,
the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served;
were all prescribed.
KING OF ENGLAND. The style " kitg of England," was first used by Egbert
A. D. 828; but the title Rex gcntis Anglorum, king of the English nation,
existed during the Heptarchy, See Britain. The plural phraseology of we,
us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire-
land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until/. 542, when Henry VIII.
changed lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted
at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707 ; and of the " United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan-
uary 1, 1801, Avhen the royal style and title was appointed to run thus: —
^^Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia Britanniarum Rex, Fidei Defensor, ^^ "George
the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith,"
KING OF THE FRENCH, Decreed by the National Assembly that the title ol
" king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of
" king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in
1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I.
was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French,"
August 9, 1830. See France.
KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term
queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds
to the throne, she shall be called kiiig. Thus it will be seen in the annals of
Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See
Hungary.
KING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest
sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob-
tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre-
hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in
1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to
Germany, where he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected
next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in
succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived
by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ;
but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April
6, 1814.
KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the king
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the
judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic-
tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control
as others, because the law presunxs the king to be here in person. The
name of this court Ims been altered to that of Qitcen's Bench, since the
384 THE world's progress. [ KNX
accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in
immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign.
KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England.
The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar
credulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four-
teen years, 92,107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the
king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an-
nounced in the London Gazette^ March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch
publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un-
til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714.
KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered by
Hemy I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus-
tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become
chief of a new administration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one
thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati-
cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things will still be written in the
same meagre way, in point of matter, as before j but we shall have them in
a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbelt.
KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to
have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian
monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Mends, or MisraXm, makes his son Atholas,
surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt; and another son, Tose-
thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c. — Blair. Ninus founds the As-
syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet.
KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing
was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas
approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss-
ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns,
and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century.
From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling
to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709.
KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and
gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose of
promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they
effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele,
and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of
the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook,
who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and
who served them with pastry.— J?Mf?7/6T'5 Life of Queen Anne.
KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived
from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in
Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who,
after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about
760 B. c. — Livy.
KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations,
particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and
Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru-
saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief
amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood,
and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights
travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the
cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don
Quixote.
KNIGHrHCX)D. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after
KNi]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
385
confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy.
The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athel-
stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelman. The
custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed
in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashmole's Institutes. All persons
having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine,
38 Henry III. \2^i.— Salmon,
KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi-
valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de-
cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of
anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man-
sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle.
Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and
treasure were carried oft" by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich
fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and
to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow,
and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of
the highest rank and largest possessions, admission into the order was
deemed a great honor.
MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND
Alcantara, instituted - - a. d.
Alexander Nevskoi, Russia - -
Amaranta, Sweden
Angelic Knights, Greece
Annunciada, Mantua
Annunciation, Savoy - • -
Argonauts, Naples
Avis, Portugal - - - -
Band, Spain ....
Bannerets, England, 13G0. Eenev\red.
See Bannerets - - ♦ -
Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See
Bath .....
Bear, Switzerland • - - -
Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by
Frederick I. -
Blood of Christ, Mantua - - -
Brotherly Love, instituted
Burgundian Cross - - - -
Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Sau-
cho III. .....
Carpet, England - - - •
Catharine, Russia
Chase, instituted by the duke ofWir-
temberg - - • - -
Christ, Livonia - . . -
Christ, Portugal - - - •
Christian Charity, France
Cincinnatus, America
Conception of the Virgin
Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris-
tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh
Crescent, Naples - - - -
Crown Royal, France -
Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by
Waldemar IL, 1219 ; revived by
Christian V. - - - -
Death's Head, Female Order, by the
widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe
Mersburgh
Dove of Castile
Dragon, Hungary
Ear of Corn, Brittany
Elephant, Denmark, by Christian 1
Ermine, France •
Garter, England
n
1700
1645
456
1618
ia55
1382
1147
1232
1485
1725
1213
1701
1608
1708
1535
1 156
1553
1698
1719
1203
1319
1590
1783
1619
J 660
1448
802
1671
-1709
-1379
•1439
- 1050
-1478
- 1-150
- ia50
HONORARY ORDERS OP KNIGHTHOOD.
1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh
Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by
Philip, surnamed the Good
Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel
Golden Shield and Thistle - • -
Golden Spur, by Pius IV.
Guelphic, Hanover - - - -
Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived -
Holy Ghost, Rome
Holy Trinity - - - - -
Hospitallers {which see)
Januarius, Naples - • • -
Jerusalem. See Malta -
Jesus, France - - - -
Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John
XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V.
Knot, Naples . . . -
La Calza, Venice - - • •
Legion of Honor, France, instituted by
N;tpo!eon Bonaparte -
Lily of Arragon - - • -
Lily of Navarre - . . .
Lore I to, Lady of - - - -
Malta. See Malta.
Martyrs, Palestine - - - -
Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain
Mauritians, Savoy
Merit, instituted by the landgrave of
Hesse Cassel • - - -
Merit, Prussia ....
Noble Passion, Germany •
Oak of Navarre, Spain -
Passion of Jesus Christ, France
Pius, founded by Pius IV. •
Porcupine, France
Red Eagle, Prussia - - - -
Redemption, instituted -
Rosary, Spain - - - -
Round Table, England— See Knights
of the Round Table -
St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribeg
to this saint the introduction of Chris-
tianity into Muscovy)
St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed
1452 ; and a^ain by James V?.
^1. Anthony, Ethiopia r •;
-1685
1429
1785
1370
1569
1816
1559
1198
1211
1092
1738
1M8
1206
1610
1351
1400
1802
1403
1048
1587
1531
1319
1792
1430
1785
1740
1704
722
1382
15.59
13ft3
1792
1212
1172
1696
1605
357
386
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[kni
St, Michael, Germanj • - •1618
St. Patrick, Ireland - • - 1783
St. Paul, Rome .... 1540
St. Peter, Rome - . - - 1520
St. Rupert, Germany, by ths archbish-
op ul Saltzburgh - - -1701
S-. Sepulchre, Palestine - - - 1092
St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis,
grniul-duke of Tuscany - 1561
St. Thomas of Aeon- - - -1370
Saviour, (Greece - - June 1, 1833
Seraphim:', Sweden - - - - 1334
Ship and C';(>.^cent, France - - 1269
Sincerity, instituted by the elector of
Saxony 1690
Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662
Swan, Cleves - - - - 960
Sword, Cyprus - . • - 1195
Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - -1772
Templars.— See Templars - - 1118
Teste Morte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652
Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia - 1522
Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370
Thistle of Scotland, 812 ; revived - 1540
Trinitarians, Spain - - - 1594
Truxillo, Spain - - - - 1227
United Ladies for the honor of tiie
Cross, in Germany - - - 16G6
Virgin Mary 1233
Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607
Warfare of Christ, Poland - • -1705
Warfare of Christ, Russia - - 1325
Wing of St. Michael, Portugal - -1165
Wladimir, Russia - - - 1682
KNIGHTHOOD jn EUROPE, continued.
St. Anthony, Hainault - - - 1382
St. Blaze, Aeon - - - - 12.50
St. Catharine, Palestine - - -1163
St. Catharine, Russia - - 1698
St. Denis, France - - - 1267
St. George, Austria - - - - 1470
St. George, Carinthia . - - - 1279
St. George, Defender of the Immacu-
late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729
St. George, England ; instituted by Ed-
ward 111. See Garter - - 1349
St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by
Frederick III. - - -' - 1460
St. George, Rome - - - 1496
St. George, Russia - - - - 1782
St. George, Spain - - - 1318
St. George, Venice - • - - 1200
St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of
Juliers and Cleves - - - 1447
St. James, Holland - - - - 1290
St. James, Portugal - - - 1310
St. James, Spain - - - - 1030
St. Jerome, Germany - - -11.54
St. John of Aeon - - - -1370
St. John of Jerusalem - - -1048
St. John of Malta - - - -1522
St. John of Rhodes - - -1300
St. Julien, of Alcantara - - - 1176
St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman-
uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572
St. Louis, France - - - - 1693
St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed - 1562
St. Mary the Glorious - - - 1233
St. Mary de Merced, Spain - - 1218
St. Michael, France - - - - 1469
KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of superior
worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to women
also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved the
city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their
stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the
Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were
granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion.
KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d.
528. — A?,ser''2, Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward
III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the
recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became
anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon
projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a
solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise.
He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return
of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those
jousts and tournaments. — Beatson.
KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by
Doomsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, were
greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the
latter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence
called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307.
KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118.
They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple
in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights
were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and
possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct.,
LAB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 38»
1307. Those iu England were all seized the same year. Their order was
abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312 ;
and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given
to the knights of Malta. See Malta.
KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of
cutlery, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon-
don, 6th Eliz., 1563. — Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks.
KORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general
aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians iji
tlie worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under
certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro-
phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer-
tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho-
met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty-
three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful,
fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de-
scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis-
sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading artk^e of
faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and
a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet
is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in
1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq.
It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran;
Islamism; Mecca; Mahomelism, tf«c.
L.
LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under
admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by admiral
Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a
splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon
England, May 19, 1692.
LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed
from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com-
mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay,
in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search
of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the
East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast
away on two different islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by
various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought
with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards.
LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were
successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be-
tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, Avhen they experienced a severe
reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success,
until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800.
LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by
Daedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ;
the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that
place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the
Hetrurias, about 520 b. c. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of
Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with
pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Heroilotus.
The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of
388 THE world's progress. [lam
Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton
Court that is much visited.
LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France and
Flanders in 1320 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for
the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace
was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien-
nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An
ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds
in London, and its value when manufactured has. been increased to forty
pounds, ten times the price of standard gold.
LACEDJEMON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco-
nia, 1616 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Laced ^
mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta
was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most
known. The Lacedaemon republic became famous in history after 700 b. c.
particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71
B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucydides ; Priestley.
LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the
poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were
therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the
words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady,
that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of
Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly
belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom
has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women
of eminence or gentility. See Lord.
LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in num-
ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives
having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft,
he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are
called to this day.
LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 850,
according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord-
ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought
io the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called
the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its
chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con-
nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In
England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th
of March.
LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American
independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen
years old. He raised a corps at his own expense ; Was wounded at Brandy-
wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re-
inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal
reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re-
ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward
for his services : returned to France in the frigate Brandy wine, September
7, 1826.
LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they
were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic-
tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000
drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred.
lAmps wer? in general use through the streets of London up to the close
LAN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389
of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys.
London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps
in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture ; of this kind
is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1786, et seq.
See Safety Lamp. •
LANC ASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual
instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not .
much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general
attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder,
who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from
1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of
them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in
Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819.
LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry VIIL 1544.
The whole rental of the kingdom, was about 6,000,000/. in 1600. It was
about 14,000,000Z. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of
10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50
millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40
millions ; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior
class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has
been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary
much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S.
LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do-
minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century ; it be-
came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the
rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse
Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse.
LANGSIDE, Battle of; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the
earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter
suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal
battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at Workington, in
Cumberland, on May 16; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth.
LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea-
ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the
former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians,and the pro-
foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that
Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that
the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has
for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring
to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two
children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they
were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they
both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there-
fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other
nations, 647 b. c. — Herodotus, Polycen., Strabo.
LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. Tlio
original European ones are thirteen, viz : Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian,
spoken in the east ; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in
the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazygian, remain-
ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic,
in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin
sprung the Italian, French and Spanish ; and from the Spanish the Portu-
guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High
Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotck,
390 THE world's progress. [ LAT
&C. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world. Of these,
937 are Asiatic ; 687 European ; 276 African ; and 1624 American languages
and dialects. — Professor Adelung.
LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn
were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it ts supposed that horn
was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign,
« A. D. 872-901. — Stowe's Chron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns,
with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn has served
for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses aro
preferred. See article, Lavips.
LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally
allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages-
ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence
as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is
allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by
human hands.
LATERAN, COUNCILS of the. They were held in the Basilica of the La-
teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right
of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry
V.J 1122 ; by the second council was secured the temporalities of ecclesias-
tics, 1139 ; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179 ; the fourth on
church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots ; and the fifth was
the famous council of Julius II., 1512.
LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape
them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude
construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c.
Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines
frequently cost thousands of pounds.
LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and
from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the
Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most
beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be
spoken in Italy, about a. d. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel-
mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred
years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public i)roceedings from the Tweed
to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more
or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon-
tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731.
LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is
the extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to
either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude,
and made it 69.493 ; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it
69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732 ; and
Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it
69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot,
68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63— -less than at
the equator ; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro-
late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and
others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid.
LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum,
who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 904 b. c.
Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium
under ^Eneas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally
known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had
founded the city of Rome in their country.
LAW. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 39.
LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new seq^., whose principles arc variously repre-
sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from those
of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the
foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of
curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work-
ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generation
of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire ;
and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great
numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States.
LAWS. ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807
B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe-
nians, 623 B. 0. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of
Solon, 578 b. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. c. ; they
remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira-
tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race
of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman
laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermoginvin
codes were published in a. d. 290. The Theodosian code in 485. The Jus-
tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law.
LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the
Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's
code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was
compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated
his laws, ill 10G5. SU^plien's cliarter of general liberties, 1136 ; Henry II. 's
confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194.
See article Oleroii. Magna Cliarta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation
by Henry III., 1216, et scq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charter of the.
Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench,
'•That no liotion of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the
fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield,
LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro-
jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller-
general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta-
blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of
which the national debt of France was to be paid off". He first offered his
plan to Victor Amadous, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful
enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in
1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke
of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every
rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed
both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal
bank, and tlie shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so
that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the
current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false
credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government,
ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des-
perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same
fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet.
r^^nrERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristeis, are said to have been
first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign, 1291. Serjeants, the highest
members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common
Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis
Bacon, in 1604. There are about 1200 barristers in England: and the num-
ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor-
neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in
the United States, was published in New-York, 1850.
392 TTiE world's piiogress. ["lea
LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri-
« tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes-
dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and
Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annwht. The finest sort of black lead,
that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great
quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use
in 1236.
LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good,
was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other
princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was
entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The
League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so
called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the
Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi-
nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, w ho was then of the
reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The Leao-ue of Wurtzburg,
1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League And Covenant in
Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal
authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686.
LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono-
mers of Julius Caesar, 45 b. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours,
comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another;
the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was
called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile, This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through-
out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XllL, in 1582, when
the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference
between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds,
and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in
the course of years caused 1700 and 1808 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900
be a leap-year ; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Ycar^ Gregorian
Calendar, <f*c.
LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the
Greeks during the fourth century b. c; and with the Romans with the com-
mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined
until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a. d.
1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors,
that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from
Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini,
and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou-
ragement to literature and the arts.
The illustrisus Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550.
—Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France,
Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the
" golden," by others, the "Augustan age " of English literature.
LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of
manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, (&c., by all ancient nations.
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 b. c. The ancients un-
derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England,
and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into
many useS: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times,
and found to answer, Oct. 23, VJSS.— Phillips. The duty on leather produced
annually in England, 450,000Z., and in Ireland, about 50,000^. It was abolish-
ed in both countries, May 29, 1830.
LEP ] • DICTIONARY OF DATES. 393
LEGHORN. Livor?w. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741.
It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796,
but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously
removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken
the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital-
ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813.
LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first
formed by Romulus,, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse,
about 750 b. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 b. c, the legion consisted
of 6000 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 b. c. it was 6200 soldiers, besides
700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept
at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions,
about 5 B. c. ; and the peace-establishment of Adrian was thirty of these
formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions,
A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with
a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men.
LEGION OF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions
in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such
individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the
state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona-
parte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon
family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814.
LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus,
king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leip-
sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In
the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Liepsic in vain, but they took it
two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars
it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article.
LEIPSIC, Battle of. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of
modern times, between the French army, commanded by Is^apoleon, on the
one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the
former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost
by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies,
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in
the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of
artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by
the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army.
The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em-
peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe-
den, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813.
LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church, from Ash-
Wednesday {whwh see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostohc institu-
tion. The primitive Christains did not commence their Lent until the Sunday
which is now called the first Sunday of Lent : and the four days beginning
were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of
fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England
by command of Ercombcrt, king of Kent, in 640. Baker's Ckron.
LEPANTO, Battlk of. The great naval engagement between the combined
fieets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the
Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consist-
ed of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of
which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in
killed and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of
Turkey, Oct. 7, Vo'il.-- Volt aire.
11^
39r
THE world's progress. * [ LEX
LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian,
1822 B. c— Usher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew
alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other
nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so
vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the
alphabets which are known. See Alphabet.
LETTERS OF MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in
England by Edward L, for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for repri-
sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer's Fmdera. They were
first granted in 1295. — Baker's Chron. They are usually granted in time of
war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of
belligerent nations. — Powel.
LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in
use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one ^f the
earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree
their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. —
Hist, of the French Revol.
LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at
the village of Leuctra, between Plataia and Thespia, between the Thebans,
under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta,
the victory being with the former. In this battle, 4000 Spartans, with their
king, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 371 b. c. From
this^day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, which they had
maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans. — Plutarch.
LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all
things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of
this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck
were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the
churches which Luther had left standing ; and then, finding an army in their
followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc-
tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of
40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma-
gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce
these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun-
try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusi-
asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be-
headed at Mulhauscn, in \b2^.—'Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French
Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England.
LEWES, Battle o\ . Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort,
earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this
battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard
king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I.,
were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of
Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing
the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort
used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de-
struction. See Evesham.
LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese
language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters, as having been compiled 1100
B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif-
teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap-
peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759.
See article. Dictionary.
LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle claims distinction as being the first
A)ught between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war
LIB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395
of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos-
ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by tho
Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775.
LEYDEN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain,
and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d.
1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce-
lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1675.
The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large
part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807.
LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected
the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law,
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem
of the world, is deemed a libel. "The greater the truth, the greater the
libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed.
Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz. : Lord George Gor-
don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison-
ment for five years and fined 600Z., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on
the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning PosVs
libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel
on Napoleon Bonaparte, in VAmbigu, of which he was found guilty, Feb.
21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of-
fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England, 1820. Act
regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York
and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was
made with good motives and for justifiable ends.
LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by
American Colonization Society, 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first super-
intendent of the colony ; new Constitution — Roberts elected president —
Oct. 6, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au-
gust 1, 1849.
LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads
were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever
was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no
sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple
was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ;
that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick;
W'ith many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1625 ; and
the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since.
LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in
nistory was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 b. c. The second of any
note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 b. c. It was nearly de-
stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable
books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The
first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 b. c. — Straho. The
first library at Rome was instituted 167 b. c. : it was brought from Ma-
cedonia. Tho library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens,
86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's
works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantino the Great,
about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed
from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con-
ststing of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who
heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead
of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nouv,
Diet. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine
396
THE world's progress.
[lie
Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the notion of confining the
clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn-
ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been
emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early
Chmese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the
destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-whang-tee,
ordered all writings to be destroyed, that every thing might begin anew as
from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc-
ceeding emperors with great difiiculty.
LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain-
ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus jjub-
licly accessible are in this proportion, viz. : in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit-
ants, there are 417 books ; in Denmark, 412 ; in Bavaria, 339 ; in Tuscany,
261 ; in Prussia, 200 ; in Austria 167 ; in France, 129 ; in Belgium, 95 ; in
Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention
of printing is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of
England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas
Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li-
brary for the use of the public, a. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de
Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna,
(imperial,) 1440 ; Vatican, 1465 ; &c. See table^ below.
In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes
each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) arc
not taken into the account :
France has 107 Public Li-
braries, containing 4,000,000 vols.
Belgium has 14 do. 538,000 "
Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 "
Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 "
Saxony has f» containing
Bavaria " 17 do.
Denmark " 5 do,
Tuscany " 9 do.
G. Britain « 33 do.
5&4,000 vols
1,267,000 "
&45,000 «
411,000 "
1,771,493 *'
Taking the capital cities we find the following results :-
Li-
Paris has 9 Public
braries, containing
Brussels has 2 do.
Berlin " 2 do.
Vienna " 3 do.
Milan •' 2 do.
Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as
follows : —
Founded. Vols.
1,474,000 vols.
143,500 "
530,000 "
453,000 "
230,000 "
Dresden has 4 containing
Munich " 2 do.
Copenhagen " 3 do.
Florence " 6 do.
London " 4 do.
340,500 vols.
800,000 "
557,000 "
318,000 "
490,500 «
Paris (1) National Lib., 1595 824,000
Munich, Royal Lib., 1550 600,000
Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000
I^ndon, British Museum, 1753 435,000
Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 1.550 412,000
Beriin, Royal Lib., 1650 410,000
Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 313,000
Dresden, Royal Lib., 1656 300,000
Madrid National Lib., 1712 200,000
Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 16(>i 200,000
Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000
Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000
Milan, Brerea Lib.,
Paris (3), St. Genevieve,
Darmstadt, Grand Ducal,
Florence, Magliabecchian,
Naples, Royal Lib.,
Brussels, Royal Lib.,
Rome (1), Casanate Lib.
Hague, Royal Lib.,
Paris (4), Mazarine Lib.,
Rome (2), Vatican Lib.,
Parma, Ducal Lib.,
Founded. Vols.
1797 170,000
1624
1760
1714
1839
1760
1661
1465
1760
150,000
150,000
150,000
150,000
133,500
120,000
100,000
100,000
100,000
100,000
The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order : —
Founded. Vols.
Gottingen, University Lib., 1736 360,000
Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000
Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000
Tubingen, University Lib., 1562 200,000
Munich, University Lib., 200,000
Heidelburg, University Lib., 1703 200,000
Cambridge, Public Lib., 14^ 166,724
Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000
Prague, University Lib., 1777 130,000
Founded. Vols.
Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115,000
Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,000
Copenhagen, University Lib. ,1730 1 10,000
Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000
Louvaine University Lib., 1639 105,000
Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,239
Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000
Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000
Edinburgh, Univ. Lib., 1582 90,354
LIB J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
397
The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the
Founded. Vols.
1 British Museum, London, 1753 435,000
2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000
3 University, Cambridge, 1484 166,724
4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 1682 148,000
6 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,239
FoundCsf.
Royal Institution, London,
London Institution,
London Library,
Sion College, «fec.
Vols
LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief
public and college libraries of the United States *n 1849, was stated to be
1,294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over
10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the
precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus :
Vols.
6 Mercantile Library, New York
7 Georgetown College, D. C.
8 Brown University
9 New York State Library •
10 Yale College -
11 Astor Library, New York-
Vol8.
-32,000
-25,000
-24,000
-24,000
-21,000
-20,000
1 Harvard College, including Divin-
ity and Law Schools - - 72,000
2 Philadelphia and Loganian Library 60,000
3 Boston Athenaeum - - - 50,000
4 Library of Congress - - - 50,000
5 New York Society Library - - 32,000
The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected.
The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has not yet commenced collecting
its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the
State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis-
tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries,
chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent
date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and
contains 32,000 volumes ; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes ;
in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12 200 volumes. There are similar
ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c.
The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord-
ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : —
Vols.
1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library,
2 Columbia, Dist. of, has 2,
3 Connecticut. "
4 Georgia,
5 Kentucky,
6 Louisiana,
7 Maine,
8 Maryland,
9 Massachus^ttiS,
10 Missouri,
11 New Hampshire,
6,
1,
1.
i;
3,
i
2,
6,000
53,000
81,449
13,000
7,000
5,500
38,860
12,000
200.000
14,300
22,500
Brought up.
34,
12 New Jersey, has 3.
13 New York, '
' 12,
14 North Carolina, '
' 1
15 Ohio, '
' 1,
16 Pennsylvania, '
' 14,
17 Rhode Island, '
' 3,
18 South Carolina, '
' 2,
19 Tennessee, '
' 2
20 Vermont, '
' 2
21 Virginia, '
* 4
34, 454,366 Total - - - 81, 980,134
The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not includ^ school,
parish and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent.
The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries; i.e.
half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Rep, Brit.
Mus. ; Prof. JeweWs Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Livermore in N. Amer. Rev.,
July 1850, (^c.
LIEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con-
vents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo-
men." In the time of Louis XI. of France, a. d. 1461, Liege was a large
and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign
power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 17^ ;
and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it
was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, in
1814.
398 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. | LIS
LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people,
and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of
Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles ; the Pharos
of Messina; the Colossus of Rhodes, &c. There are forty- two round the
coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel,
and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish
coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts.
LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, up^n the ruins of that of
Grenoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Ge»oa,
August 10, 1802. The Ligurian repubhc was incorporated with France, it
having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged
into the kingdom of Italy.
LIMA. See America and Columbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru,
was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a
city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings.
This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as
Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by
annual festivals, a. d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it
was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see.
LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves-
tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in
England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253.
Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen
weavers established itself in London, in 1368 ; and the art of staining linen
became known in 1579. A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and
other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc-
ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire-
land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou-
raged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread,
and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696.
This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture
there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub-
lin, was opened, 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in
Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in Great
Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture.
LINNiEAN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linn6, a Swede,
or, as his name is Latinized, Linnaeus, was commenced about 1725-30; and
his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes,
orders and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ-
ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his vari-
ous genera. The Linnasan Society in London was instituted in 1788, and
was mcorporated March 26, 1802.
LISBON. The Moors arc said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city
when they conquered it, a. d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed b}^ an earthquake, November
1, 1765. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court
fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French
army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle
of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, imder sir Arthur
Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas-
sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal.
LISLE, Siege of. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the
allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it
was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty
of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications
LIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 399
of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his-
tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from
the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792.
LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about
A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Greg-
ory I., in or about b%.— Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany
was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII., in
15iS.— Collier's Ecc. Hist.
LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen
Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable
decision at the bar of tiie House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy-
right was overruled Feb, 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have
an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living,
the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time,
then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right
is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ;
but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for
42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is
to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July
1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The
International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protec-
tion in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the
same protection to English authors.
LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected
with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through
the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson,
and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. .
The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve
authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty :
this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was
established Sept. 15, 1825.
LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whoso
first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was
announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par-
tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be
referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in
1841.
LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was
restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first
composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The
offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same
form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the
solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturg}'' was reviewed and altered to
very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng-
lish language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637.
Again altered in 1661. The litfirgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil-
kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith.
LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their
vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a
single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar-
ment ; and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe.
LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressiva
400 THE world's progress. [log
increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first
rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes-
day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient records
its various appellations are, Litherpul, and L/yrpul, signifying probably, in the
ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced
its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the "Liver,"
or from a sea- weed of that name ; it was but a small fishing place, until, in
1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the
notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation
of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships
which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows ; British, 2,615, of the
aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons.
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th Jan-
uary, 1844, was je4,121,522.— PaW. Bet.
LLOYD'S, London. The coffee-house iji connection with the Royal Exchange,
and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side
of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of
eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c. ; and here are
effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books
kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are
remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs.
LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its
virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua-
lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. — Sturmius. Aristotle
assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it
under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its
attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said,
known in France before a. d. 1180 ; but this honor is accorded to Roger
Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its
virtues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of
the mariner's compass. See Compass.
LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor-
rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen
borrowed 200,000/. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own
coin, and sir Thomas Greshani and the city of London joined in the secu-
rity.— Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo-
rable periods, was, viz :
Seven years' war from 1755 to 1763 - - je52, 100,000
American -vvar IVom 1776 to 1784 - - - 75,500,000
French revolutionary war from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000
War against Bonaparte from 1803 to 1814 - - - 206,300,000
Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one
millions and twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a
subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon-
don in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil-
lions, Dec. 5, 1796.
LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake
of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and
his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the
English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of
St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl
of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re-
markable as the place of the unfortunate queen Mary's imprisonment, in
1667, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was
compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an
interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in Tlie Abbot; and of which
LOMj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 401
also, some new and affectihg particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th
vohime of his History of Scotland, published in August, 1840.
LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con-
trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange
mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The French are ac-
counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bra-
mah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784. Locks have been
made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite work-
manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but it«
own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys.
LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently
superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of
these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt
and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 b. c. The country of
Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and
after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable
stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 40G. A similar catastrophe occurred
in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground
about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the
streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers,
but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4,
1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June
1816.
LODI, Battle or the Bridge of. One of the great early achievements in
Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed
to the Austrians commanded by general Bcaulieu, and obtained a brilliant
and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands
of the Imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made
prisoners. May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won-
derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and
the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards.
LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a. d. 1570 ; and first mentioned by Bourne
in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which
the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly
the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used
in the royal navy is forty-eight feet.
LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of
numbers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an
eminent Scotchman (sir Tohn Napier) in 1614. The method of computing
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time,
and hence called Napier^s bones. The invention was afterwards completed
by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford.
LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic
religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick-
liffe.— CAaucer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ;
he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples
of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account
of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith,
London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed
by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or
persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri; Carte.
LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com-
posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Grenoa, Lucca, Florence,
or Venice. — Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sentti) England
402 THE WokLD^S PROGRESS. [ LOC
by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private
persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected
throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229.
They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called
after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion
from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth.
LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the
marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited
into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths, To reward their ser-
vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548.^ Tliev
passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at*MilaiL
in 670. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and iiade considerable
conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and
annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan, &c.
LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it tliat
a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 351
years before the foundation of' Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes
54 B. c. and long previously the royal scat of their kings. In a.d. 61. it
was known to the Romans as Lundiniuni. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta
was the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of
trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. —
Tacitus. It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an
old British king, who was buried near where Ludi^ate formerly stood ; but
its name is from Llyn-Din, the ''town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c.
LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though
rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to
have kept 180 Christmasses in his own liouse, and died in the reign of
Charles I., being the oldest man on any thing approaching to authentic re-
cord for upwards of 3000 years. — Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of
Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and
considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per-
fect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov.
15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was
buried in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There
are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia ; and at Dantzic a
man is said to have died at 184 ; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged
186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the
greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood ;
but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is
no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch.
LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree
in the Canaries, 162 b. c. Harrison made a time-keeper in a. d. 1759, which
in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required
by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714 ; and in 1763, he applied for the
reward of 20,000^. off*ered by that act., which he received. The celebrated
Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the
chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Br^guet bring the longitude al-
most to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but
Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool.
LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in
England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lam-
, beth, in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them
in the last century; but the English have brought their factories to great
perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single
plate, the walls of large rooms.
LOT I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 403
LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought
into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the
general principal of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in-
genuity. There are about 260,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75.000
power-looms, each b"eing equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two
yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807.
liORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for
the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap-
plied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobility. — See Lords and
Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally
Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by
contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word;" a writer observes, "is
worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf^ a loaf of bread, and /^r<^, to
give or afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be-
cause in those ages, such great men ke[)t extraordinary houses, and fed the
poor ; for which reason they were called givers of bread.'' — See Ladies. The
nickname of " My Lord," given b}^ vulgar people to hunchbacked persons,
is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn.
LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the
1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborhe, the first
peer, was made earl of Hereford; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury;
Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and
Gerbodus (a Fleming) made carl of Cliester. Twenty-two other peers were
made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests
for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can-
not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per-
son; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same
reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns; or,
in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. See Baron; Earl;
Marquess, &c.
LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulcndum, to
consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205.
The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until
some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs
were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And
writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain
that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was
held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well
as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer-
tain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in
this house. The teuiporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility :
some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new-
made peers ; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707,
and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire-
land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life.
The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115
earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English
prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers.
LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at
the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued
day and knight until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the
fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate.
The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotte-
ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a laree
annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin
404 THE world's PllOGllESS. [ LUT
in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the national
convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act
was passed imposing a penalty of 501. for advertising foreign or any lotteries
in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote
of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng-
land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states
there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures.
r/JUISIANA, One of the United States. First explored by the French, and
received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a
settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful
attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a
colony. His efforts were folowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who
held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the
year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company,
at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and
Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In
1731. the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded
the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province
to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for
S'15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of
the Mississippi. In 1812, the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu-
tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810. 76.556 ; in 1820,
153,407 ; in 1830, 215 575 ; in 1840, 352,411, including 168,452 slaves.
LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign
of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now
called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of
paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief
of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms,
but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors.
LUCCA, The Duchy of, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard king-
dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied
by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of
Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's
demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled,
Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of S215,-
000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria
Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847.
LUCIA, St. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several
times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French
negroes, April 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi-
nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was
restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again siezed on by Eng-
land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814.
See Colonies.
LUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the em-
peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo
Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form
the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian,
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801.
LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman
people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572
B.C. Every five years were called a lustrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty
years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra.
LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub-
lifihfid his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was
LYC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405
deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such
a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; that no crime could be
committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences,
not only past sins, but those whjch were intended, were to be forgiven.
Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and
thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam, in Vita jbutheri.
LUTZEN, Battle of, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on
the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded
by general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened
the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed the
victory, it was manifestly on the side of France ; but in this engagement
marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurt-
zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when
the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to,
and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did
not produce peace.
LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle of; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden,
against the emperor. In tliis sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus,
the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protest-
ant religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was
foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the
battle of Lippstadt.
LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken
and pillaged by the French in 1543 ; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544 ;
by the French in 1684 ; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken
by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town,
and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief
occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century; it
surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795.
The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re-
public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of
the Rhine immediately after.
LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his-
tor** of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been
enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine,
muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and
black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was
distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals ; his halls were
named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to
surprise Jiim, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to
serve it in the hall of Apollo: this feast for three persons casually met,
would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England,
luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and. nobility were con-
fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course,
except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a
free estate of 1001. per annum, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk ;
and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all
others it was prohibited, a. d. 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VL (»(
France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup
and two dishes," 1340.
LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem-
ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceua, son
of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the Ilis-
sus in Attica where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he generally taught
406
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[lyr
his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi-
losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c.
— Stanley.
LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of
whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb: he was conquered by
Cyrus, 548 b. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with
many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as-
cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished hQXQ.^Hero-
dotus.
Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns
in hyAio..— Herod. - b. c. 1223
The kingdom of Lydia, properly so
called, begins under Ardysus I.—
Blair 797
Alyattes reigns - - - - 761
Meles commences his rule - ♦ - 747
Reign of Candaules - - - 735
Gyges, first of the race called Mermna-
dsB, puts Candaules to death, marries
his queen, usurps the throne, and
makes great conquests - - 718
Ardysus II. reigns ; the Cimbri besiege
Sardis, the capital of Lydia - - 680
The Milesian war commenced under
Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who
reigns - - - - 631
Reign of Alyattes IL - - - 619
Battle upon the river Halys between the
Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an
almost total eclipse of the sun, which
superstitiously occasions a conclu-
sion of the war. — Blair • May 28, 585
[This eclipse had been predicted many
years before by Thales, of Miletus. —
Blair.]
Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the
throne, and becomes celebrated for his
victories and conquests - b. c. 562
Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni-
ans, JEolians, and other parts of Asia
Minor are subjected to his dominion - 554
All the nations west of the Halys are
conquered, and that river becomes
the boundary of the kingdom.Blair - 550
Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus,
whose conquests had reached to the
borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys
to attack the Medes, with an army of
420,000 men and 60,000 horse - 548
He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be-
sieged in his capital, and taken - 548
The conqueror orders Croesus to be
burned alive, and the pile is already
on fircj when he calls on the name of
Solon m agony of mindj and Cyrus
hearing him pronounce it, spares his
life - - - - - - 548
Lydia, the kingdom of the " richest of
mankind," is made a province of the
Persian empire - - - 548
iEsop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a
style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of
Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain-
ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan-
der, about 330 b. c. It next became i)art of the new kingdom of Pergamus,
founded by Philaeterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to the
Romans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Empire, a. d.
\Z2&.— Priestley.
LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a
single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the Vvign of Nero. Two gen-
eral councils were held here in the 13tli and 14tli cfiitiirios. The sill? man-
ufacture commenced in tlie reign of Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged
in 1793 by the convention arniy of GO. 000 men. and surrendered Oct. 7,
when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention
decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the
Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans,
which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21. 1831.
Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons,
Nov 4, 1840. See Jnundations.
I.YRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three
strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several
strings to the lyre making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phrynis, a musician
of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 b. c.
mac]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
407
M.
MACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Garanus, about 814 b. c. It
was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens,
sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip,
the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician* and
exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his
son's greatness. Macedon had twd^ty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan-
der inclusive : after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divid-
ed among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new
kingdom. See Tabular Vicics, p. 15 to p. 37.
Reign of Caranus - « b. c. 814 i
Rein^n ol' Perdiccas I. • - - 729 I
Reign of Argaeus I. . - - G78
Reign of Philip I - - - - 640
Reign of jEropas; he conquers the Illy-
rians - - - - -002
Reign of Amyntas - - - - 547
Reign of Alexander I. - - - 497
Reign of Perdiccas II. - - - 454
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas,
murders the legitimate heirs of his
father, and seizes the throne - - 413
He is suniamed the " Patron of Learn-
ing" 411
He is murdered by a favorite to whom
he promised his daughter in marriage,
yet gave her to another - - 399
Reignof Amyntas II. - - - 399
He is driven Vroin the throne - - 398
Recovers his crown, and puts Pausanias
to death - - - - 397
The lllyrians enter Macedonia, expol
Amyntas, and put Argajus, brother of
Pausanias, on the throne - - 392
Amyntas again recovers liis kingdom - 390
Reign of Alexander II. - - - 371
He IS assassinated - - - - 370
Reign of Perdiccas III. - - - 366
He IS killed in battle - - - 360
Reign of Philip 11. and institution of the
Macedonian phalanx - - - 360
Philip gains the battle of Methon over
the Athenians ... - 360
He defeats the lllyrians in a desperate
engagement - - • - 3.j9
He takes Amphipolis, and receives an
arrow in his right eye. See Archery 358
He conquers Thrace and Illyria - 356
Birth of Alexander the Great - - 356
Philip adds to his conquests - - 348
Close of the first sacred war - - 348
lllyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344
Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343
Aristotle appointed tutor to the young
prince Alexander - - • 343
War against the Athenians - - 341
Philip besieges Byzantium - - 341 ;
Battle of Choeronea; Philip conquers. ;
See CJiOironea • - - - 3.38
Philip is assassinated by Pausanias, at
Egeea, during the celebration of games
in honor of his daughter's nuptials - 336
Alexantler III., surnamed the Great,
succeeds his father - - - 336
He enters Greece - > - - 335
The Greeks appoint him general of their
armies against the Persians • - 3;>5
The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes
333
3.33
. 332
to the ground ; the house of Pindar is
alone left s'anding - - - 335
The Almighty .avors Alexander with a
vision, in which the high-priest of the
Jews appeai-s to him, exhorting him
to pass into Asia. See Jetcs - 334
He passes into Asia, and gains his first
battle over Darius See Granicus,
Battle of - - - - 334
Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; Ha-
licarnassus is taken, and numerous
cities in Asia Minor - - - 334
Memnon ravages the Cyclades; Darius
takes the field wiih 460,000 infantry
and 100,000 cavalry -
Battle of Issus (tc/?u7/ see) -
Alexander, in iiis way to Egypt, lays
siege to Tyre, which is destroyed after
seven months -
Damascus is taken, and the vast trea-
sures of Darius come into the posses-
sion of the victor - - - 332
Gaza surrenders - - - - 332
Alexander enters .Jerusalem ; and
Egypt conquered - - - 332
Alexandria founded - - - - 332
Great battle of Arbela, the third and
last between Alexander and Darius ;
the Persian armv totally defeated.
See Arhela • ' - - - 331
Alexander proclaimed master of Asia;
he enters Babylon in triumph - 331
GRECIAN OR MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.
Alexander sits on the throne of Darius,
atSusa - - - - 330
Parthia and Ilyrcania are overrun by
Alexander - - - - - 329
Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits
him, attended by a retinueof 300 wo-
men. See Amazons -
He puts his friend Parmenio to death,
on a charge of conspiracy, supposed
to be false ....
Alexander makes more conquests
His expedition to India ; Porus, king of
India, is defeated and taken ; and the
country as far as the Ganges is over-
run - - - - - 32i
Calisihenes is put to the torture for re-
fusing to render divine homage to
Alexander - • - - - 326
Subjection of tlie Cosseans - - 326
Death of Alexander - - - 323
His conquests are divided among his
■generals - - - -323
His remains are transported to Alexan-
dria, and buried by Ptolemy - 32i^
- 329
329
328
408 THE world's TROGRESS. [ MAD
MACEDON, continued.
The Greeks defeated by sea and land
near Cranon (which see) • b. c. 322
Thebes rebuilt by Cassander • - 315
Seleucus recovers Babylon - - 312
Cassander puts Roxana and her son to
• death, and usurps the throne - 311
Battle of Ipsus (which see) • - - - 301
New division of the empire - - 3fil
Reign of Antieonus Gonatus - b. c,
Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats An-
tigonus, and is proclaimed king
Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored
Antigonus takes Athens -
The Gauls again invade Macedon
Revolt of the Parthians
Reign of Demetrius II,
Reign of Philip, his son
His war against the Rhodians
Philip is defeated by the Romans
He is totally subdued
The reign of Perseus
Perseus defeated by the Romans
277
274
272
268
268
250
242
232
202
198
196
179
171
MACEDON II.
Death of Cassander- - - - 298
Reign of Alexander and Antipater - 298
Demetrius murders Alexander, and
seizes the crown of Macedon - - 294
Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279
The consul ^milius Paulus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman
province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 b. c, and next year
walk in chains before the chariot of Emilias in his triumph for the conquest
of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath
II. in A. D. 1429. Priestley.
MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho-
las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By
some they are stigmatized as '' the most pernicious maxims of government,
founded on the vilest policy ;" and by others as " sound doctrines, notwith-
standing the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared
in 1617 ; and was translated into English in 1761.*
MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lo-
renzo Almeida a. d. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race
of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsup-
ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved
pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the
pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1809.
Mi\.DEIRA. So called on account of its woods; it was discovered, it is said,
by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England
for an illicit amor. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French
lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to
Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was
discovered by a Portuguese, a. d. 1345. But it is maintained that the Por-
tuguese did not visit this island until 1419, nor did they colonize it until 1431.
It was taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admi-
• ral Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to
the Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown.
MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of
the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1020. Madras was taken by the French
in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle.
MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was
sacked a. d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1616. The
Escurial was built in 1567, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734.
The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family
had retired into France j and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to
• The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) " the doing
of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, whereby
ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires proir pt
them tn, at ihe expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safuty." — Ferguson.
ttAG*) DICTIONARY OP DATES. 409
expel them, when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona-
parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, J uly 20, 1808 ; but soon retired.
Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year ; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812,
when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored
May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the
. late civil war, for which see Spain.
MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the
prince of Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a
memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Lewis XIV.
took it in 1673 ; William prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676 ; but,
in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French,
who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being
restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes-
tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters
of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to the
allied forces.
MAGDALENS and MAGDALENEn;ES. Communities of nuns and women,
the latter class consisting chiefly ot penitent courtesans. The convent of
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha a. d. 1324. That at Metz was institu-
ted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by
pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and
further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without
will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have
their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their
effects to the Magdah^n institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth,
1594, The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally
under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New- York a similar institution called
"a Home lor the friendless," was founded, 1846.
MAGELLAN, Straffs of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer-
nando de Magelhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by
the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was
undertaken by this illustrious navigator; and his vessel performed the en-
terprise although tlie commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here,
since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want
of food.
MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of
the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know-
ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular
homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars
nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent
God within walls; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and
their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so
that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were
finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the
reformer of the sect of the Magi : he flourished 1080 b. c. — Du F^resnoy.
MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon,
England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260. Bacon flrst invented the con-
vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments,
applied them to this use.
MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have
been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his
successors, Stephen, Henry II.. and John. But the Charter more particularly
meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John,
1<S
410 THE world's progress. [maj
and sig^ned at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 16, 1215. The barons took
arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed,
and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter
was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward
T. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on the word
and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant
a fifteenth of all, moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were
temporals or spirituals; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it
had been confirmed above thirty times.
MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the
attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im-
memorial ; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in
Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro-
perty of pointing to the north pole. The Itahans discovered that it could
communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the
same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of
Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The impor-
tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made'
about 1676 (published 1680) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's
experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather
improved, in 1761. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an-
nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849.
M AHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro-
mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned
general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant.
Mahomet asserted that the Koran Avas revealed to him by the angel Gabriel
during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Ara-
bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered
as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword,
500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written in
various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is
said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before,
by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and
immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideaux.
MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and
were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be-
came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the
invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed
by carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback.
MAINE, cue of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bu'stol.
The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a
governor and council It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by
the State of Massachusetts, for S'5,334 ; annexed to Massachusetts, under
charter from William & Mary, in 1691 : became a separate State in 1820.
Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705 ; in 1840, 601,793.
MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were ad-
dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of
state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany
took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves.
It was first given to Louis XI. of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles
V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the
style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of
England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your
Majesty, 1520.— See F^eld of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this title
with the term *' Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See IMles,
man] dictionary of dates. aw
MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occuiTences relating to these islands, see
Minorca.
MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and
prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars.
The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the
victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh-
ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid
by the capture of Mons ; fought Sept. 11, 1709.
MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of ^
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some
merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph
of Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
and whom they received with zeal and charity, a. d. 1048. They afterwards
founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers.
This foundation was laid in a. d. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they
now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality
entered, and changed their name into knights. After the Christians had
lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired
to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then
they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi-
nions, where they staid 'till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes,
under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it
under the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, his
successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Fortitudo ems
Rhodum tenuity or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called
knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they re-
tired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the
city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave /
them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself
grand-master of the order in June, 1799.
MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon
the enterprise after tlie loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798.
He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line,
a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 muskets : besides an immense treasure
collected by superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at li-
berty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and
was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800 ; but, at the peace of \
Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The |
British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between
the two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua-
ranteed to Great Britain.
MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in
Egy[)t. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were es-
tablished by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a. d. 1246. They
advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until
Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into
pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On
the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia.
Assisted by the Arnauts, who Avere introduced into the country in the war,
the Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government
In 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain
MANNHEIM. First built in a. d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in
1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 causcl the re-
412 THE world's PROGRESS. f MAK
moval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies
of the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered
to the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the
26th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, de-
feated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with va-
rious success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the
popular dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtz-
Durg, named Sandt, April 2, 1819.
MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest
the East, about a. d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and
i^articularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been,
ieft him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or
envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or cum-
forter that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the
one good, and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing
but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil.
Several other sects sprung.from the Manicheans, Manes was put to death
by Sapor, king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, his
having dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one
of the royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his
arms. — Nouv. Diet. Hist,
MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish com-
merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was
taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The cap-
tors humanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster-
ling ; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establish-
ment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783,. thi.
usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ;
and the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private
bottoms by free companies of merchants. — Butler.
MANTINEA, Battle of, between Epaminondas, at the head of tjie Thebans,
and the combined forces of Lacedajmon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia.
The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time
Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 b. c.
— Strabo.
MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Mantua surrendered
to the French, Jan 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; and it was at-
tacked by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it sur-
rendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the
French again obtained possession of it ; but they delivered it \x\} to the
Austrians in 1814.
MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian
philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer
on record, 5*^0 b. c. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A ce-
lestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century.—
F^reret. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew
Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent,
A. D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520.
Mercator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented in
1666. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 1647.
See Charts.
MARATHON, Battle op. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history.
The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, and the Persians amounted to 500,000.
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles,
who defeated the Persians, leaving 200,000 dead upon the field. Among the
mar] dictionaPwY of dates. 413
number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remainder
of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 b. c.
MARBLE. Dipajnus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who
sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their
time being of wood, 568 b. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for
statues, and the columns and ornaments of fine buildings, and the edifices
and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine
marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which
were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than
those of even Rome itself. These latter were discovered by some English
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra.
MARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January
and February, 713 b. c. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave
to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes,
that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu-
lus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year for-
merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Ye^jr.
MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army
was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies
of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix
(who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes
of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost
6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon ; and though the
French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men,
it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty be-
tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on
the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos-
session of the latter: and he became, in fact, the master of Italy.
MARESCHAL, on MARSHAL. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires
of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van-
guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp-
ment. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French
marshals, who had 500 livres per annum, in war, but no stipend in time of
peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance,
the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em-
pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown.
See Marshal^ Field.
MARIGNAN, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage-
ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be-
tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of
twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest
troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515.
MARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to
their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah ; and some of
their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. c. See Com-
pass. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given
to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfl, an ancient commercial city
of Naples, a.d. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by
Columbus in his voyages of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London
in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass-
maker of Ratcliffe, in that year.
MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to
make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another
prince or country. Some such instruments arc said to have been first used
414 THE world's progress. [ma^
by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in Eng-
land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, a. d. 1296. —
Rymer^s Pcudera.
MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the
Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the
language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was
to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of
honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been
established, in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great
favorite of king Richard 11. , Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created
marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and
earls, a. d. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland,
was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480.
MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for
life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to
Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b. c. — Eusebius Pref. to Chron. The prevail-
ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride,
after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more
sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil
magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar-
riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a. d. 1199.
Marriage was forbidden in Lent, a. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in
692, and to priests in 1015 ; and thesfe latter were obliged to take the vow
of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace
under an act of the Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1653. A
tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50Z., of a com-
mon person 2s. 6^., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were again
taxed in 1784.
MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a certain time every year,
the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid-
der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased
them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion ofi*
those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms.
When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lots,
beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing
a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below
the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid ; and
he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female
was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo-
chus, about 1433 b. c.
MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about
600 B.C. — Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken
by Julius Csesar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the
Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected
to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of
France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles,
and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants.
MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date, and
was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commander-in-
chief. The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil-
itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George II.
first conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork-
ney in 1736. See Mareschal.
MARSTON MOOR, Battle op. This battle was the beginning of the misfor-
tunos and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I, of England. The Scots and
mar]
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
4t5
parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Ru-
pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege.
Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and
the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command-
ed the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who
now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had
taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious ; he pushed liis
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en-
gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artillery wa.^
taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow ; fought July
3, 1644.
MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and
the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February
1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following yeai*.
They were again taken Marcli 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of
Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution
took place in this island in iavor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed
by the British, June 1, 1815; and Martinique reverted to its French masters
at the late general peace, 1815.
MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in
martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their w^onderful constancy to
their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient
date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr-
dom A. D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs ; and the accounts of
those who sufferedYor their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill
volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer,
Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a
" Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, and Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cran-
mer, Lallmer.. and Ridley,'" kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were
in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive :—
-J60 1 4
.-034
.006
-DINNER.
-jeo 0
1st. OCTOBER, 1554.-
Bread and ale
Oysters - - - - - 0 0 1
Butter - - - - 0 0 2
Eggs 0 0 2
Lyng 0 0 8
A piece of fresh Salmon - - 0 0 10
Wme - - . .003
Cheese and pears . - - 0 0 2
The three dinners - - j60 2 6
TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY.
For 3 load of wood faggots to burn
Latimer and Ridley - - 0 12 0
Item, 1 load of furze faggots --034
Item, for the. carriage of these 4
loads 0 2 6
Item, a post .
Item, 2 chains -
Item, 2 staples
Item, 4 laborers
0 2 8
£15 8
[They were burnt on October the 16th, 1555.]
CHARGE FOR THE BURNING OP THE BODY
OF CRANMER.
For 100 of wood faggots for the fire 0 6 0
For 100 and ^ of furze - - 0 3 4
For the carriage of them . -008
For two laborers - • -028
jeGl2 8
He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.]
MARTYRS, Era of. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used
by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced
in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of soipe nations,
particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a. d. 284 ; and the
persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called.
MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa-
tent of Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ;
named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were
Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634 ; free toleration
of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled
416 THE world's progre&s. [majb
in 1650, and again in 1776 ; the State bore an active part in the revolution j
adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population
in 1790 was 319,728 ; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485
slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March,
1847.
MASKS. Poppaea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to
guard her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use
among the Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to -^schylus ; yet
Aristotle says the real inventor and time of their introduction were un-
known. Modern masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were
devised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in
1672.— Stowe's Chron.
MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in^he court of Edward III. 1340;
and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the
citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa-
tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six
masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re-
vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government,
and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque-
rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-five
guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. •
MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the cele-
bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of
the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to
allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge-
neral division of masses consists in high and low : the first is that sung by
the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-
deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed
without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin, about a. d. 394. Its
celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Pros-
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201.
MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a
colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This
was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and
Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692.
The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this
State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston,
Bunker Hill, Lexington, <^c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780;
revised and altered in 1820 ; slavery abolished in 1783; Shay's rebellion in
this State in 1786 ; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187
against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472.040 ;
in 1820, 523,287 ; in 1840, 737,699.
MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class
under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities
of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon
another, in vindication of the Christian religion ! The following are among
the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors : —
BEFORE CHRIST. A dreadful slaughter of the Teutonos and
Of all the Carthagenians in Sicily, which
took place 397 b. c.
2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the
sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex-
ander, 331 B. c.
The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in-
habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them,
for refusing to surrender their arms to De-
metrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 154 b. c.
Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Ro-
man general, 200,000 being left dead on
the spot, 102, B. c.
The Romans, throughout Asia, women and
children not excepted, cruelly massacred
in one day, by order of Mithridates, king
of Pontus, 88 B. c.
A great number of Rojnan senators massa-
cred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius.
has]
DICTIONARY OF DATEb.
417
MASSACRES, continiied.
Many patricians dispatch themselves to
avoid tneir horrid butcheries, 86 b. c.
Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minis-
ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c.
At Prseneste, Octavianus Cajsar ordered 300
Roman senators and other persons of dis-
tinction, to be sacrificed to the manes of
Julius Caesar, 41 b. c.
AFTER CHRIST.
At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,0(X) of
Jews were put to the sword, a. d. 70.
The Jews, headed by one Andrae, put to
death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, m and
near Cyrene, a. d. 1 15.
Cassius, a Roman general under the empe-
ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of
the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167.
At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens
are massacred, by an order of Antoninus,
A. D. 213.
The emperor Probus put to death 700,000
of the inhabitants upon his reduction of
Gaul, A. D. 277.
Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the
emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they
were put into a sfiip which was set on
fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 370.
Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited
into the circus, were put to the sword, by
order of Theodosius, a. d. 390.
Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens
of Constantinople for a revolt, to which
they were impelled by the tyranny and ex-
actions of two rapacious ministers set over
them, A. D. 552.
Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by
order of Andronicus, a. d. 1184.
Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, com-
menced of Toulouse, A. D. 1209. Tens of
thousands perished by means of the
sword and gibbet.
The Sicilians mas.«!acre the French through-
out the whole island of Sicily, without
distinction of .sex or age, on Easter-day,
the first bell for vespers being the signal.
This horrid affair is known in history by
the name of the Sicilian vespers, a^.
1282.— Vu Fresyioy.
A general mas.^acre of the Jews at Verdun,
by the peasants, who, from a pretended
prophecy, conceived the Holy Ivand was
to be recovered from the infidels by them.
500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle,
and defended themselves to the last ex-
tremity, when, for want of weapons, they
threw their children at the enemy, and
then killed each other, A. D. 1317.
At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the
instance of John, duke of Burgundy, a. d.
1418.
Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order
of Christian It., A. D. 1520.
Of 70,000 Huguenots, or Fi-ench Protestants
throughout th3 kingdom of France, attend-
ed with circumstances of the most horrid
treachery and cruelty. It besan at Paris,
m the night of the festival of St. Bartholo-
mew, Aug 24, 1572, by secret orders from
Charles IX., king of France, at the insti-
gation of the queen dowager, Catherine de
18*
Medicis, his mother. It is styled in his.
tory, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks,
when 65,000 were slain, A. d. 1592.
Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under
a pretended legal sentence of the chancel-
lor of Poland, for being concerned in a
tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic
procession, a. d. 1724. All the Protestant
powers in Europe interceded 'to have this
unjust sentence revoked, but unavailingly.
At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred
by the natives, October 1740, under the
pretext of an intended irsurrection.
At the taking of Ismael ty the Russians,
30,000 old and young were slain, Decem-
I^er, 1790.— See Ismael.
In St. Domingo, where Desealines made
proclamation for the massacre of all the
whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou-
sands perished.
Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the
French, May 2, 1808.
Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel
of Cairo, March 1, 1811.
Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the
Catholics, May 1815.
Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitants
of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious
disorders continue for some days, March
6, 1820.
massacres in BRITISH HISTORY.
Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain,
May 1, A. D. 474.
Of the monks of Bangor, to the number oi
1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber-
land, A. D. 580.
Of the Danes in the southern counties of
England, in the night of November 13,
1002, and the 23d Ethelred 11. At London
it was most bloody, the churches being nc
sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda,
sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in
hostage for the performance of a treaty but
newly concluded. — Baker^a Chronicle.
Of the Jews in England. Some few press-
ing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s
coronation, were put to death by the peo-
ple ; and a false alarm being given that
the king had ordered a general massacre
of them, the people in many parts of Eng-
land, from an aversion to them, slew all
they met. In York, 500, who had taken
shelter in the castle, killed themselves,
rather than fall into tlie hands of the mul-
titude, A. D. 1189.
Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood,
Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), a. d. 1209.
Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order
to dispossess its members of the Spice Is-
lands, A. D. 1623.
Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in
O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up-
wards of 30,000 British were killed in the
commencement of t/iis rebellion. — <SiV
William Petty. In the first two or three
days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the
Protestants were destroyed. — Lord Clar'
endon. Before the rebellion was entirely
418 THE world's progress. [mai
death by pikes, perpetrated by the insur-
gent Irish, at the bam of Sculiabogue, Ice-
land, in l79S.—Sir Richard Musgrave.
Massacre of 64 American prisoners at Dart-
moor, England^ (diaownedby British Gov-
ernment,) April 6, 1815.
MASSACRES, continuea.
suppressed, 154,i00 Protestants were mas-
sacred.—<S'jr W. Temple.
Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe,
May 9, 1691.— See Glencoe.
Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly
Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to
MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principal
courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of
the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception
of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603.—
Baker.
MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christo-
pher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in k cause was
made to a master, a. d. 1588 ; and the masters have been since chosen from
among the most learned equity members of the bar.
K ASTER or the ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge,, so called from
his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and
recognizances, which being made into rolls of i)archment, gave occasion for
that name.
lIATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and
discipline ; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathema-
tics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to num-
bers and quantity. They were tirst taught to the Jews, and by them to the
Egyptians, so early as 1950 b. c. — Josepkus de Aiitiq. Jud.
MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning
of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins im-
ply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of
Moscoio, the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents,
at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600.
MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a u.
1500 J but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after
prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of
Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French
landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This
island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty
of Paris in 1814.
MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro-
ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that
at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned,
and erected to his memory a monument, which, for its grandeur and mag-
nificence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monu-
ment she called Mausoleu7n, a name which has been given to all monuments
of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and pro-
posed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her
husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b. c.
MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer,
received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in
respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated ma-
jores ; though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa
Pompilius, by adding January and February to the year, made this month
the fifth, which before was the third, 713 b. c.
MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of
Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in
MEC J DICTION.\RY OF DATES. 419
England as a rural festival; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in
many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the
day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-
day, an entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate
class the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good
English fare of loast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded.
Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from
the mistress of the feast.
MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en-
dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of stu-
dents who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church
in Ireland, 35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endow-
ment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,000Z. for
the enlargement of the buildings, and 26,000Z. annually, were granted by
parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and
controversy in England.
MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free
cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power.
Mayor of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles
Martel ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, et scq., under the last kings of
the Merovingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and
had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of
corporate towns, before ivhose institution in England, towns were generally
governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date
from the reign of Richard I.
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869
B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after-
wards; and were very early known in England. Standards of weights and
measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London,
8 Richard I., a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1267.
They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825.
MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, a. d. 671.
The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one
of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually
retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran
was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from
the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac,
1871 B. c.
MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in-
trodnced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been
ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for
instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of
Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense
masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved
and elevated.
The first writing on mechanics, was by-
Aristotle, about - - B. c. 320
The Statera Komana invented - - * *
The fundamental property of the lever
and other instruments was demon-
strated by Archimedes - - 205
The hand-mill, or quern, was very early
in use ; the Romans found one in
Yorkshire - - - - * *
Cattle mills, molcb jumentaricv,^ were
also in use by the Romans, and in
parts of Europe - - . * *
The water-mill was probably invented
in Asia ; the first that was described
was near one of the dwellings of
Mithridates - - 'b. o. 70
A water-mill is said to have been erect-
ed on the river Tiber, at Rome - 60
Floating mills on the Tiber - A. D. 536
Tide-mills were, many of them, in use
in Venice about - - - 1078
Wind-mills were in very general use in
the twelfth century - - - • •
4120
TUS world's PROGJEIESS.
[neh
MECHANICS, continvjed.
Saw-mills are said to have been in use
at Augsburg - - - a. d. 1332
Theory of the inclined plane investi-
gated by Cardan, about - - 1540
Work on statics, by Stevinus • - 1586
Theory of falling bodies, Galileo - 1638
Theory of oscillation, Huygens - 1647
Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren - 1662
Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels,
Roemer .... 1675
Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo-
• relli J he died - - - - 1679
Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in
England.
MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It
revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c, and afterwards became an independent
kingdom, and conquered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the
Mede, 636 b. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire,
and shared its fate, — Blair; Priestley.
Revolt of the Medes— BtoiV
Application of mechanics to astronomy,
I)arallelogism of f«.«rce3, laws of mo-
tion, &c., Newton - - - 1679
Problem of the catenary with the ana-
lysis. Dr. Gregr ry ' - - - 1697
Spirit level (an? many other inven-
tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to - 1702
The Mechanics' Institute in London was
formed in - - - ' - 1823
Mechanics' Institute in New York
formed 1833
- B.C.
The country was subjected to the As-
syrians.— Idem - - - -
Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia,
Armenia, and other countries
Battle of Rages ; the Assyrians defeat
the Medes. — Blair
War with the Lydians ; the hostile ar-
mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun
so alarms them, they conclude peace
without striking a blow -
The reign of Astyages.— Blair -
766
625
Cyrus made king of Persia - B.C.
Astyages deposed by Cyrus
Croesus king of Lydia defeated, and his
throne seized by Cyrus
Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar
to death; and makes Astyages (or
Darius, the Mede) viceroy
By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be-
comes master of all Persia ; and this
era is properly the commencement
of the Persian emphe.—Lenglet
559
550
548
538
357
The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux-
ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous
who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast
of at least five husbands. — Aspin.
MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Repo-
sitory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It
was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill.
MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the
East, about a. d. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation
was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of
the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of me-
dicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the
hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes
have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art.
MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained
in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number
of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here
Mahomet was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, a. d. 622. This
flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira,
a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee , or quit one'^ country or friends.
MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre-
sented to us as if they were present. — Pardon. Simonides, grandson of
Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia,
for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. c—
Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger-
many in 1807. See Mnemonics.
MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious
j«ES] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421
who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti-
ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominicans,
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders
subsequently branched from them.
MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is
of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were dis-
covered by Archimedes, to wljom the chief advancement in mensuration
may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c.,
about 218 B. c.
i\[ERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have
been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca-
tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how-
ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these
charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an-
gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of
latitude as they recede from the equator.
MERCHANT— from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who
trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted
the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by
queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of
Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurer's society (see
Adventurers. Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296 ; it
extended to England in Edward III. 's reign; and was formed into an En-
glish corporation in 1564. — Haydn.
MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found
in vast qantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Grermany
are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200
tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues
of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512. —
Nouv. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol-
lius early in the seventeenth century ; the first directions for its preparation
were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation
for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in
1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Orbelin, of Vienna, 1786.
MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy-
sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry
VIII, , and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and
good humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs,
and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The
name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — V Estrange.
Johnson.
MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter
-of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro-
pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting
this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth ;" about a. d. 310.—
Baronius, Annal.
MESSENIA, now Maura-Matra. a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom
was commenced by Policaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san-
guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred
cities, most of Avhose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the
Achaean league 216 b. c.
MESSENIAN WARS. The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia.
The first began 748 b. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered
422 THE world's progress. [ MET
to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion common
to both nations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the
females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made
so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un-
married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the
end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors.
The second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan
yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenians who
fled to Sicily. The tkird took place 465 b. c, it endured ten years, when
the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus.
MESSINA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then
called Zancle, 671 b. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire,
but fell to the Saracens a. d. 829. — Priestley. In the eleventh century Roger
the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op-
pression. Great Messinian conspiracy. 1282. The memorable revolt took
place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated
by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and
in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since
which it has been handsomely rebuilt.
METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned
as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals
are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel
in furnaces. The Phojnicians had an extraordinary skill in working me-
tals.
METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated
with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be
traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor-
dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly
called the revival of learning.
METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from
one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who
would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which
the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so
long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans-
migrate; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em-
balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 b. c.
METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis-
cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented.
"Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, " is not to form a sect, or to
bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or
form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians
in heart and life, in temper, word, and worl^r— such as lived in the early days
of Christianity, and such as we conceive may still live." The methodists
may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford a. d.
1729; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me-
thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their
career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward
in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Metho-
distce, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence ot
the strict regimen under which they placed their, patients. The methodist
missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke
in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these
missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organis-
ed for their support, until 1817.
MID ] DICTIONARY OF DaTES. 423
MEXICO. Discovered in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under
Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished,
A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in
1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in-
dependence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution
proclaimed by the president Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19,
1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles
suppressed, May 1826, The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March,
1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year.
Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year.
The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European
powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June 1830. Civil war
between Bastamorite and Santa Anna, 1882. Santa Anna elected president,
March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of
San Juan de XJiloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated,
March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa
Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa-
redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and
Herrera made president, Dec, 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845.
War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto,
May 8, 1846; and subsequently at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23,
and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern-
ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the
mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista,
Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847.
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in
disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20,
1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American
general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States, rati-
fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato,
June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be-
comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz
surrendered by the United States. Aug. 1. See War of the Uriited States and
Mexico. Signer de la Rosa first Mexican minister to the United States after
the war. presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848.
MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving representing figures on cop-
per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it
is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648; but baron Heinikin states
that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza-
beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engravitig.
MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit
in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted
to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territorry ceded to England by
the peace of 1763; made a separate territory of the United States, in 1805;
admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the
territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen-
eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4.528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830, 31.639 ;
in 1840, 212,267. ' ' ' >
MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d
1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re-
fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded
to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In
England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker
F. R. S.. who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — Biog. Diet. *
MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hc«
424 THE. world's progress. [Ma
brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460
B. c. is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad-
vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and of Galen, who lived a. d.
131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti-
tution of the College of Physicians, Kl Henry VIL, 1518. The celebrated
Br. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after
his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc
affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther
back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valhfere, mistress of Louis XIV.,
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted
with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the
subsequent labors- of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives
after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them.
MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re-
puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 b. c. It submitted to the
Romans 222 b. c. ; was formed into a republic a. d. 1221 ; and lastly was
governed by dukes from a. d. 1395, imtil 1505, when it was conquered by
Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan,
about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan, by Charles V. of Ger-
many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan
was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748.
Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ;
but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the
capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned
with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree
of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring
England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807.
Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept. 8, 1847.
Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848; followed
by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov-
ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt-
ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered
Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on
proposed union with Piedmont: — 56L002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing
it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri-
ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians
at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848.
MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle,
but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather
than allowed, as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times
proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through-
out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun-
try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the
insurrection of June, 1848.
MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most
historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub-
jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved
in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England
was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the
• Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hierc
pholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to hei
patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now
out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. Sne confessed her sex to the
judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. —Ilt/g. /a. 274.
ION ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425
appointment of officers are different in the different States. See Encyclo'
"pedia Americana. The aggregate mihtia force of the United States, as re-
ported in 1848, was 1,888,638, but as the returns in some instances were
for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to
2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace
about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war.
MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the
road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac-
cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules,
who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who he was, she
threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk.
Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactca was occasioned by a
confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c.
MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex-
piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation ; and that during
the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It
was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was
propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium
was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our
blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec-
tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet.
MILLINER; Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and
dresses for women, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be
derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption
of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In
1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very
strongly censured in the Society of Arts, Young females Are employed at
all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex-
posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while
the perfumed coxcomb [" He was i)erfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare.]
measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady
phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler.
MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar.
Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be
like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the
Britons previou&ly to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced
the water-mill. See article Mechanics.
MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds.
Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng-
land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced,
occurs 47 Henry IIL, 12^2.— Ruding. It related to mines containing gold,
together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime,
and salt exist in great abundance, in various States : lead mines in Mis-
souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North
Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Cop-
per, Tifi, Gold, d^c.
MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40° 30' north
lat., and between 91° 10' and 102° west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux.
Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants
from the United States about 1845-6.
• I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as
one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons harangumg upon the merits of muslin,
or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the lieehng of contempt ; for thi
employment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from prostitution.—.^.
Southey.
426 THE world's progress. [mis
MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides.
Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in
August 1708, and was confirmed to the British bj- the treaty of Utrecht in
1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral
Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety
of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the
enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763.
Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured
by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up
at the peace of 1802.
MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to
divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee-
men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of
Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as tlie reign
of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at
the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk
into neglect.
MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at
New Orleans, 1838; at Charlotte, N.C., 1837; atDahlonega, 1838. ^QeCoining,
MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; and from a passage
in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women
were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328
B. c. See Looking Glasses.
MISS. In the seventeenth century, the e])ithet Miss applied to females was
considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in
Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a Bottle, about 1782, was the first
actress announced as Miss. — Gait's Lives of the Players.
MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St.
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America.
The Jesuits had missions to China {^wliich see), and to most other parts of
the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was
a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian
Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions,
about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov.
4, 1794 ; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions.
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810;
first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ceylon^ 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che-
rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu-
tions of about S200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts
of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this
Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical
science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important.
The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu-
merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of
Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission-
ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. Sec Benevo-
lent Societies.
?^SSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat-
chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the
Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part
of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory,
together with Alabama, constituted the ''• Mississippi Territory" until 1817,
when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929 ;
in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375 651. including 195 211 slaves.
MOG]' y ^ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 427
MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included with Louisiana in the
purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French
in 1764, but was httle more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri-
torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a Stato
in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise,
which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis-
souri. Population in 1810, 19,833 ; in 1830, 140,074 ; in 1840, 383,702, includ-
ing 58.240 slaves.
MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele-
brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced
about that period, exploded in 1720; at which time, the nominal capital is
said to have amounted to 100,000,000Z. See Lmv's Bubble.
MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in tlie form of an electuary, supposed
to be the oldest compound kno\vn to us at the present day. It was invented
by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 b, c. It was formerly
tliought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out
of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of th©
capital medicines of our shops.
MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100.000 Romans, 86 b. c.
and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human
life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having
taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of
Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He
ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his
throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. — Lenglet.
MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by
the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young
women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto,
wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according
to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less
magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of
Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day.
MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world.
The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon-
ides the younger, 477 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics
have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Tec/mica of Dr. Grey is an
esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have
it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no-
ticed in the London monthly periodicals.
MO DEN A. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the
French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions
were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran-
cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 6, 1831. The
archduke escaped ; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and*
restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke,
March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24 ; Provi-
sional government appointed, April 9, 1848.
MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son,
Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards
' known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul
empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d. 1236. Timour
Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous
sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried
away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the
nabobs have made themselves independent. See India.
428 THE world's progress. [ M0*»
MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon
after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or ahnost
universal monarchies, — the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. Sei
them respectively.
MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in a.
D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic
houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious
communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re-
ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among
other persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear
at Ephesus : he there ordered them to change their black habits for white,
and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the
vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their
eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their
various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St.
Austin arrived in England a. d. 696, Ethelbert of Kent ^ave him an idol
temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his
successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic
houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in
1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII.
1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers,
whose descendants enjoy them to this day.
MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 2od chapter of Ge-
nesis, when Abraliam purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year
of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of mone}^ is ascribed to
the Lydians. Moneta Avas the name given to their silver by the Romans, it
having been coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 b. c. Money was
made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an-
cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so
late as 1574. Silver has increased more tlian thirty times its value since
the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity
that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commO'
dity. See articles, Cohi ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mmt, d^c.
MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de-
serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d. 250. St. Anthony is sup-
posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular
monastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate.
St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys.
MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son
of Charles II. Avas banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded
England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on
- the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and
was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth,
from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII.
about 1535.
MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England,
that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence
mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were
further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were
totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created,
as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1C40. — Ander-
son^s History of Commerce.
MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba. in Mysia, an extra-
MOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429
ordinary enthusiast, about a. d, 171. He was reputed to have the gift of
prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con-
demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar-
riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three
lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be-
fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit.
MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was
taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November
12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je-
suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great
military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the " Rebellion Losses " Act ;
the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849.
MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar-
tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of
conjunction of the sun or moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage.
Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by
Thales, 640 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the
moon, 79 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant-
zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at the full moon is 90,000 times
less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Sniitli. It is 300,000 times less. —
Bouguer.
MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a. d. 173. — Univ. Hist. The Saracens in
Spain beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who
seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d.
1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq.
The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the
power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XL of Leon and Castile, slew
200,000 Moors in one battle ; three leagues round the country was covered
with the dead. 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi-
nand v., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to tho
number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Priestley.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science
of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re-
garded as the fatlier of moral philosophy, about 430 b. c. And Grotius is
esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern
times, about a. d. 1G23. — Bate, cf-c.
_ MORAVIANS. Unitp^d Brrtiiren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in,
it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say
that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They
appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died
at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order
to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed
settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and
other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now
so general.
MORGARTEN, Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and
glorious in the annals of Switzerland ; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians,
» commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. Tliev
seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through
which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achiev^ed
their victory, Nov. 15, 1315.
MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe
Smith " is said to have beciu made in the state of New York, about 1835.
Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders Joe
430 THE world's PROGRESIS. [ MXHI
Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28,
1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844^
The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists,
and the Mormons emigrated to Desseret and California, 1848-9.
.MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the Roman*
it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, Abdallah, a leader
of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last
sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces
shook off their dependence ; but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650,
subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France
provoked by Abdel-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers,
commence May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded,
and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abdel-Kader taken
prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846.
MORTARS, A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber,
used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated
mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816.
MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was
taken by Tamerlane 1382 ; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the
Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This
city was entered by the French, Sept 14, 1812, and the Russian governor,
Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at
once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the
ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar-
ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct.
22, following. This city has been since rebuilt.
MOSKWA, Battle of, between the French and Russians. See Borodino.
MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting
themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and
perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa-
ted A. D. 1609.
MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II.,
1469. It has been justly remarked, tliat never was the title or name of
Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved.
MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu et vum Droit was first used by Richard I., a. d. 1193.
The Bohemian crest, viz. tliree ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dicn, "I
serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy,
the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1846. Honi soil qui mat y
pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je mai7itic7idrai, ^' I unit
maintain,''^ was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper cadem was or-
dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto.
MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to
wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition
of grief for a friend lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasions'
it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for
the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in
Europe is black ; in China it is white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ;
and it was white in Spain, until a. d. 1498. — Herrera.
MUNSTER, Treaty op, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden; Spain
continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle
of a balance of power in Europe wavS first recos'nized. Signed at Munster.
Oct, 24, 1648.
tiVS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 431
MURDER. The highest offence ag-ainst the law of nature. A court of EphetsB
was estabUshed by Deniophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 b. c. The Per-
sians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the
Heptarchy, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VHI.'s
time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed
benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petU treason, may happen
in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and
an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward IH., 1350. The
enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com-
mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance
The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one
after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July ISSQ.— Haydn.
MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Pryta-
neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained
by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth.
The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus.
who here placed his library, about 284 b. c. See British Museum, 4*c.
MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in
hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers
of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And
Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first
reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 b. c. The flute, and harmony or concord in
music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marbles, Vocal choruses of
men are first mentioned 556 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that
the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible
to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel
was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of lier
melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author-
ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third
century.
IV.USICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guide Aretin,
a Benedictine monk of Arczzo. a. d. 1025. — Blair, The notes at present
used were perfected in 1838. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by
Palestrina about 1515. GalFurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi-
tion in the sixteenth century, and they eftected great improvement in the
science. The Italian stvle of composition was introduced into these countries
about 1616.
MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in-
stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen-
tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was
established in 1741, and other musical societies followed. The Royal Society
of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the
performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu-
sic established 1822. .
MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish
historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot^soldier
with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1621. In-
troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside,
12 Henry VIII. 1521. — Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the
musket into use in the Low countries, 1569. — Branstone.
MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so
called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling
mo.ss, whicli the Frenel) call mtfusrr. According to others, it was first brought
432 THE world's progress. [myt
from Monsol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng-
land in 1670. — Anderson. They wore manufactured in great perfection in
England in 1778.
MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or
felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An-
ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked,
on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon
his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one
day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately
until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d.
1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment is
awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or
confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary,
at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding,
Aug. 21, \^^\.— Phillips.
MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie: mid-
shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842.
MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty.
MYCALE, Battle of, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and
Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and
»slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just
returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were
completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt,
and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa-
mos with an immense booty.
MYCEN^. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty
stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidae. Perseus
removes from Argos to Mycenae, and reigns, 1313 b. c. Mycenae destroyed
by the Argives, 568 b. c.
MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in-
stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max-
ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt
up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis
and Osiris sprung those of Bacclius and Ceres among the Greeks, The
Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 b. c.
The laws were— 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits
of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil-
ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries.
They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389.
MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the
authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated ;
and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in
this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding
of men living in a state of hature, were supposed to be more than mortal,
and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence them
with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in-
visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and
then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions
of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations,
and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to
have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 b. c. ; and Cadmus,
the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493
B.C.
nap]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
433
N.
NABONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince
of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 b. c. To find the Julian year on which
the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 j
if after Christ, add to it 748.
NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it
to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans
taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their
names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exalta-
tion to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name
till then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John
XII., 956 ; and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to
change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of
Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but
at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It
is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new
names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the
world, their fiimily, and themselves. See Surnames.
NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was
garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715.
Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781,
the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken
by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year; but
they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it
up to the Allies, in 1814.
NANTES, Edict of. See Edict.
NAPLES The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples
was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen-
tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and
the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this
country.
The Goths having? become masters of
Naples anc of Sicily, arc expelled by
Belisarius, general of the Eastern
empire - - - a. d. 537
The Lombards next get possession of
Naples, and are dispossessed by Char-
lemagne .... 800
Charles of Anjou, brother of St. I^ouis,
king of France, obtains the crown
from the pope, to the exclusion of the
rightful heir, Conradin, who is be-
headed, aged sixteen years - • 1266
The French becoming hated by the Si-
cilians, a general massacre of the in-
vaders takes place, one Frenchman
only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers
March 30, 1282
Peter of Arragon reigns - . - 1282
The two crowns disjoined - - 1303
Charles Durazzo, becoming kin? of
Hungary, ;,s murdered there by o>der
of the queen recent, in her presence - 1386
For this murder sne is taken out of her
carriage, and drowned in the river
Boseth' ..... 1380
Sicily again united to Naples, and the
kings ever since callea king of the
Two Sicilies .... 1442
19
Taken from the French and annexed to
Spain - . ... 150J
Tlie tyranny of the Spaniards leads to
an insurrection, excited by Masaniello,
a tisherman, who in fifteen days raises
an army of 200,000 men - - 1647
Tills insurrection subsides, and Masa-
niello is murdered - - - 1647
Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess
the crown - . . 1^7
The kingdom completely conquered by
prince Eugene • . . 1707
Discovery of the ruins of Herculaneum.
See Herculaneum • - - 1711
Naples ceded to the emperor by the
treaty of Radstadt, 1714 ; Sicily - 1720
Both kingdoms are recovered by the
crown of Spain - - . 1734
And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain,
reigns 1735
Reign of Ferdinand IV. . - -1759
His flight on the approach of the French
republicans - - Jan. 14. 1799
Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, ana •
the king restored . . July 13, 1709
It is agaiii taken by the French, April 7, 1801
Dreadful earthquake felt throughout
434
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[NAT
NAPLES, cantiniied.
the kingdom, and thouBands perish
July 26, 1805
Treaty offenpive and defensive between
France and Naples • Oct. 8, 1805
Ferdinand is again driven from Naples,
and Joseph Bonaparte is crow^ned
king - - - Feb. 6, 1806
Joseph abdicates for the crown of Spain
June 1, 1808
The crown is transferred to Joachim
Murat - - ■ July 1, 1808
Naples is surrendered to a British fleet,
and Ferdinand re-enters - June 17, 1815
Execution of Joachim Murat - Oct. 15, 1815
Revolutionary movement, headed by
general Pepe - - July 15, 1820
Suppression of the Carbonari Sept 16, 1820
Reien of Francis I. - - -1826
And of Ferdinand II, - Nov. 8, 1830
Commencement of the dispute relative
to the sulphur monopoly (which is
afterwards amicably adjusted)
March 15, 1810
Demonstration in favor of Pius IX. and
reform, fired upon at Naples, and ar-
rests made - - Dec. 15, 1847
Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jan. 4, 1848
Rebellion at Palermo, «fec. - Jan. 12, 1848
Palermo bombarded - Jan. 13-19, 1848
The king signed a constitution Jan. 28, 1848
Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar-
risun - - - -Feb. 22, 1^8
The parliament of Sicily declares that
island independent ; Messina bom-
barded by the Neapolitan fleet Ap.3, 1848
The national guard raises barricades at
Naples - - - May 14, 1848
The people put down by the kmg's
troops; 1440 killed - May 15, 1848
The Sicilian parliament elects the duke
of Genoa as king of Sicily - July 10, 1848
Messina bombarded and taken by the
Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1846
New constitution conceded to Sicily
March 6, 1849
Catania bombarded and reduced Apr. 5, 18^9
NARVA, Battle of, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated
by the ^eIl0^vned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The
army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish
army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700.
NASEBY, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament anny under Fair-
fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by
lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale
the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory
was with the parliament forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfortu-
nate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all
his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June
14, 1645.
NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu-
rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present
national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in
"the year 1697, to about live millions sterling, and the debt was then thought
to be of alarming magnitude.
In 1702, On the accession of queen
Anne, the debt amounted
to - - - - i:i4,000,000
In 1714, On the accession Qf Geo.
I. it amounted to - 54,000,000
In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa-
nist war, it amounted lo 78,000,000
In 1763, George III. : end of the 7
years' war, it amounted
to - - - - 139,000,000
In 1786, Three years after the Ame-
rican war, it amounted to 268,000,000
In 1798, The civil and foreign war,
it amounted to - - 462,000,000
In 1802, Close of the French Re-
volutionary war, it a-
mounted to - ^£571,000,000
In 1814, Close of the war against
Bonaparte - - - 865,000,000
In 1817, When the Irish and Eng-
lish exchequers were
consolidated - - 848282,477
In 1830, Total amount of the
funded and unfunded
debt - - - -840,184,022
In 1840, Total amount of ditto - 789,578,000
In 1845, Funded debt - ■ - 768,789,241
\'ATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times.
- $75,463,476 In 1830 the debt was - - 048,565,406
82,976,294 In 1835 " " ■ - - 37,733
53,173,217 In 1839 •« « - - 11,983,738
99,833,660 In 1845 " •' - - - 16,801,647
127,334,934 In 1848 '^ « . . 65,804,460
91,015,566
NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be " the making a foreigner or alien a
denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were,
In 1791 the deb
was -
In 1800
''
« . . . .
In 1810
u
'< , . .
In 1816
u
« . . - .
In 1816
u
«...
In 1820
«■
« - . . .
HAV j
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 43i
both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did not
belong to." The first act of naturaUzation in England passed in 1437 ; and
various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time,
several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural-
ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year,
on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States.
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abb^
Si^yes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem-
bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by
order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the lM£rs Etat repaired to
the Jeu de Pauvie, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had
dige*sted a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of
St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article.
NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the
Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M, Gr^goire,
at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that
that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, "That the
citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being
met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that
the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a
a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed
at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory.
NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution
was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the
Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty.
They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the
first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beau-
mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British
Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been
augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi-
fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed
and opened in 1837.
NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the
first upon record, 1263 b. c. — Dii Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is'
that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 b. c. — Blair. The fol-
lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the
page of history.
at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian
admiral, is killed; and the maritime
power of the Lacedemonians de-
stroyed.— Thucydides - . 394
The Roman lieet employed in the siege
of Lilybaeum, burned by the Cartha-
ginians 249
The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the
consul Luiatius • - - 242
The Roman fleets vanquished by Han-
nibal, the Carthaginian general ; 800
galleys taken, and 1G,000 prisoners ;
second Punic war - * . 209
At Actium, between the fleets of Octa-
vianus Caesar and Marc Antony, This
battle decides the fate of the latter,
300 of his galleys going over to Caesar,
by which he is totally defeated - 31
ANNO DOMINI.
The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the
Goths, and sinks 20(X) of their ships. —
Du Fresnoy .... 2f}0
BEFORE CHRIST.
First sea-fight on record, in which the
Corinthians conquer the Corcyreans GG4
The Athenian fleet under Themi.stocle.s,
with 380 sail, defeat the Persian, con-
sisting of 2000, at the straits of Sa-
lamis - - - - - 480
Again, at the mouth of the river Eury-
medon ; Cymon, the Athenian admi-
ral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and
army, in one day. — Herodolios - 470
The Lacederhonian fleet taken by Alci-
biades, the Athenian - - - 410
The Spartan general, Lysander, totally
defeats the Athenian fleet under Co-
non ; by this victory he puts an end
to the maritime power of Athens - 407
The Persians engage Conon to com-
mand their fleet, with which he en-
tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian
fleet, and takes fifty sail out of ninety 40i3
The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan
436
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS
f NAV
NAVAL BATTLES, continued.
The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice,
and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet
in the Gulfof Lepanto. The Chris-
tian fleet consisted of 206 galleys, and
30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250
galleys, saved only 100; and lost
30,000 men in killed and prisoners.—
Voltaire .... 1571
Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani-
ards. This was a bloody conflict and
decisive victory, and settled for a time
the superiority of the Dutch, Apr. 25, 1607
NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY.
Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail
of Danish pirates on the Dorset and
Hampshire coast. — Asset's Life of
Alfred - - - - *- 897
Near Sluys ; Edward III. defeated the
French fleet of 400 sail, which were
all sunk, 30,000 French were killed
in this engagement - - • 1340
The English and Flemings; ihe latter
signally defeated - - - 1371
English and French, in which the latter
power loses 80 ships - - - 1.389
Near Mil ford Haven ; the English take
14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405
Off"Barfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes
500 French ships - - - 1416
In the Downs ; the French fleet cap-
tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459
Bay of Biscay ; English and French,
the latter defeated - - - 1512
Sir Edward Howard defeats the French
under Prejeant - - - 1513
In the Channel ; the British, defeat the
French fleet with great loss - - 1545
The Spanish Armada driven from the
English Channel to the road of Calais,
by a running fight, the Spaniards los-
ing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are
again defeated, and obliged to bear
away for Scotland and Ireland, when
their fleet is dispersed in a storm, and
they lose 17 more ships, and 5000
more men. See Armada - July 19, 1588
Dover Straits; between the Dutch ad-
miral, Van Tromp, and admiral
Blake. The Dutch surprise the Eng-
lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging
40 English, six of which are talceii or
destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral
sails in triumph through the channel,
with a broom at his mast-head, to de-
note that he had swept the English
from the seas - - June 29, 1652
In the Downs; same admirals, and
nearly same loss
Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652
The English gain a victory over the
Dutch fleet off" Portsmouth, taking
and destroying 11 men of war and 30
merchantmen. Van Tromp was the
Dutch, and Blake the English admiral
Feb. 10, 1653
Again, near Portland, between the Eng-
lish and Dutch ; the latter defeated
Feb. 18, 1653
Again, ofl" Ae North Foreland. The
Dutch ana*English fleets consisted of
near 100 men-of-war each. Van I
Tromp commanded the Dutch: Blake,
Monk, and Deane, the English Six
Dutch ships were taken; 11 were
sunk, and the rest ran into Calais
road - - - June 2, 1653
Again, on the coast of Holland: the
Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad-
miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653
At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth
2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken
by the English - - Sept. 1656
The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then
burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, bv
Blake - - - Abril, 1657
English and French; 130 of the Bor-
deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of
York - - - Pec. 4, 1664
The duke of York, (afterwards James
II.) defeats the Dutch fleet olT Har-
wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up
wiih all his crew: 18 capital ships
taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665
The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of
war and 2 India ships Sept. 4, 1665
A contest between the Dutch and En-
glish fleets for victory, maintained
for four days. The English lose 9,
and the Dutch 15 ships, June I to 4, 1660
Decisive engagement at the mouth of
the Thames, when the English gain
a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 2-1
men-of-war. 4 admirals killed, and
4000 officers and seamen. Fought
July 26, 160(>
The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the
French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667
Coast of Holland ; by Prince Rupert,
May 28, June 4, and Aug. 11, D'Etrees
and lluyter defeated - - - 1673
Several actions to the disadvantage of
the Dutch. They agree to strike to
the English colors in the British seas,
25 Charles II. - - - - 1673
Off" Tangiers, battle between the En-
glish and Moors, which lasted 11
days 1679
Off Beachy-head ; the English and
Dutch are defeated by the French,
June 30, 1690
The English and Dutch combined fleets
gain a signal victory over the French
fleet, near Cape La llogue ; 21 of their
largest men-of-war were destroyed. —
Sec La Hogue - May 19, 1692
Off St. Vincent; the English and Dutch
squadrons, under admiral Uooke, de-
feated by the French - June 16, 1693
Off Carthagena, between admiral Ben-
bow and the French fleet, command-
ed by admiral Du Casse, fought
Aug. 19, 1702
The English and Dutch fleets, under
sir George Rooke, defeat the French
fleet (having the Spanish galleons in
convoy) in the port of Vigo. They
take 9 out of 13 galleons, laden chief-
ly with silver, and six men-of-war :
the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of-
war, destroyed, fought Oct. 12, 1702
Off the Lizard, when the English fleet
was defeated - - Oct. 9, 1707
XIAV]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
437
NAVAL BATIXES, contiriued.
In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake
took sixty French vessels laden with
provisions - - May 22, 1708
The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de-
feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro
of Messina - - Aug. 11, 1718
Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews
and Lestock against the fleets of
France and Spain. Here the brave
captain Cornwall fell; and the vic-
tory was lost by a misunderstanding
between the English admirals. — Na-
val Hist. - - - -1744
Oft' Cape Finistere, the French fleet
taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747
In the East Indies ; the French retired
\o Pondicherry - - - 1747
Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took
seyen men-of-war of the P'rench
Oct. 14, 1747
Admiral Ilawke defeats the French
fleet commanded by Conflans, in
Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a
projected invasion of England, fought
Nov. 20, 1759
Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a
fleet of nierchantmcn - - Oct. 9, 1762
Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi-
ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan-
gara, the latter defeated and taken
prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780
At St. Jago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by
commodore Johnston April l6, 1781
Admiral Rodney defeated the French
going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships
of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up)
and sent the French admiral, count
de Grasse, prisoner to England
April 12, 1782
The British totally defeated the fleets
of France and Spain, in the bay of
Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782
Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de-
feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of
battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797
Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ;
admiral Nelson loses his right arm ;
July 24, 1797
Camperdown; the Dutch signally de-
feated by admiral Duncan, and 15
ships of war, with the admiral (De
Wmter), taken - Oct. 1 1, 1797
Nile I Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho-
ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of
NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES.
the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped,
Aug. 1, 1798
Gibraltar bay ; engagement between
the French and British fleets ; the
iyanni6a/ of 74 guns lost July 6, 1801
Ofl'Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains
a victory over the French and Span-
ish fleets: 1 ship captujred, fought
July 12, 1801
Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2
ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of
the Trench and Spanish combined
fleets, off Ferrol - July 22, 18ft5
Ort" Trafalgar; memorable battle, in
which lord Nelson defeated the fleets
of France and Spain, and in which
he received his mortal wound.— (See
Trafalgar) - . Oct. 21, 1806
Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British,
captures 4 French ships of the line,
off Cape Orte.iral - Nov. 4, 1805
In the West Indies ; the French defeat-
ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of
the line taken, 2 driven on shore
Feb. 6, 1806
Sir John Borlase Warren captures the
French fleet under command of ad-
miral Linoi8 - - March 13, 1806
Admiral Duckworth effects the passage
of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles.
Feb. 19, 1807
Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line,
15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur-
renders to lord Cathcart and admiral
Gambler. (See Copenhagen) Sept 7, 180?
The Russian fleet of several sail, in the
Tagus, surrenders to the British,
Sept. 3, 180&
Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth.
See Algiers • - Aug. 27. 1816
Navarino ; the British, French, and
Russian squadrons, defeat and anni-
hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava-
rino ' - - Oct. 20, 1827
Action between the British ships Vol-
age and Hyacinth, and 29 Chinese
war junks, which were defeated
Nov. 3, 1839
Bombardment and fall of Acre. The
British scjuadron under admiral Stop-
ford achieved this triumph with tri-
fling loss, while the Egyptians lost
2000 killed and wounded, and 3000
prisoners. See Si/ria - Nov. 3, 1840
Paul Jones, in the Providence priva-
teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 1776
His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778
He captures the British frigate Serapis
Sept. 23, 1779
Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri-
politans .... ]S03
— recaptured by Decatur - - feh. 1, 1804
Tripoli bombarded by commodore Pre-
ble - - - - Aug. 1804
Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the
British ship Leopard, for refusing to
be searched .... 1807
Frigate President, vs. British sloop
Little Belt ' • May 10, 181 i
Constitution captures British fngate
Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 1812
Captain Elliott captures two British
frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812
Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro-
lic, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by
British 74, Poictiers - Oct. 20, 1812
Frigate United States, captain Decatur,
captures British frigate Macedonian 1912
Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap-
tures British frigate Java Oct, 29, 1812
Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures
British ship Peacock, captain Peake,
Feb. 23, 1813
438
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[NAV
NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued.
[Delaware and Chesapeake bays block-
aded by British. ]
Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the
Britirh frigate Shannon June 1, 1813
Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop
Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813
Brig Enterprise captures the British
brig Boxer - - - Aug, 1813
Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry,
captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813
Flotilla, commodore Chauncey, cap-
tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario,
Oct. 5, 1813
Frigate Essex, commodore Porter, cap-
tured by frigate Phoebe and sloop
Cherub - - - March 28, 1814
Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge,
surrendered to British frigate Or-
pheus - - - April 21, 1814
Sloop Peacockj captain Warrington,
captures British brig Epervier
April 29, 1814
Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap-
tures British brig Reindeer, June ^, 1814
Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic-
torious over the British on lake Cham-
plain - . - Sept. 11, 1814
Frigate President, surrendered to the
British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815
Frigate Constitution captures British
brigs Cyane and Levant, ofl" Maderia
Feb. 1815
Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap-
tures British brig Penguin, off" Brazil,
Feb. 23, 13 .5
U. S. naval force under commodore
Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly
with the land force under general
Scott) IS47
NAVARINO, Battle of, between the combined fleets of England, France, and
Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, in
which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships,
many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks
themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20,
1827. The species of policy whicli led to this attack upon Turkey, was that
of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval
power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an
"untoward evetit," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day.
NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The
first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first
account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing
round Africa, 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander
the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently
the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively
from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span-
iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch.
Pla;ne charts and mariner's compass
used about - - - a. d. 1420
Variation of the compass discovered
by Columbus - - - - 1492
That the oblique rhumb lines are spi-
rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537
Fii"st treatise on navigation - - • 1545
The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577
Mercator's chart - - - - 1599
Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for
measuring angles, about - - 1600
Logarithmic tables applied to naviga-
tion by Gunter - - a. d. 1620
Middle latitude sailing introduced • - 1623
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631
Hadley's quadrant - . - 1731
Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764
Nautical almanac first published - 1767
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the
compass - - - - - 1820
See Compass^ Latitude, Longitude, Sfc.
NAVIGATION, INLAND, of thr United States. An official report of U. S.
Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle-
ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16,674 miles ; entire length of lake coast,
of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboat
tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249,055 tons. Aggregate value of
commerce on the western rivers, S183,609,725. Estimated amount of lake
tonnage, S61, 914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at diiferent periods,
see Shipping. 1
NAVIGATION, INLAND, of Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo, in his evidence be-
fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more
inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together."
The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well tlio
NAV]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
439
navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals.— Hay d^t. This state-
ment scarcely agrees with the preceding.
NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194.
See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more
extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies
passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act
regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga-
tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil-
liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849.
NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United Stat(,>.s
was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at
Portsmouth, N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of
Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. Tlio
Constitution launched at Boston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See
Naval Battles.]
NAVIES OF EUROPE and AMERICA.
COMPARATIVE
VIEW OF THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OP EUROPE
AND
AMERICA, 1846.
Relative naval
power of each nation.
In commission.
Building, ordina-
ry, &c.
Total.
1
d
Is
11
Vessels.
Guns.
Vessels.
Guns.
Vessels.
Guns.
^
^«
Great Britain,
332
4,583
304
13,098
§636
17,681
40,000
141
France,
215
4,293
131
4,635
ai6
8,928
27,554
68
Russia, -
179
5,896
179
5,896
69,000
32
Turkey, -
United States,
62
2,636
4
24
66
2,660
26,820
9
47
1,155
30
1,190
77
2,345
8,724
5
Egypt,. -
35
1,148
3
312
38
1,760
1
Holland
48
3()2
86
1,344
134
1,646
4
Sweden, -
330
660
50
1,196
380
1,856
2
Denmark,
96
344
12
732
108
1,076
Austria, -
74
686
74
686
Brazil, -
31
450
11
325
42
775
8
Sardinia, -
U
226
220
15
446
2
Spain, -
21
348
21
348
4
Two Sicilies,
17
338
17
338
Portugal,
59
Mexico
23
42
23
42
--
COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OP DIFFERENT NATIONS.
Nations, in the order of their commercial
importance.
United Kingdom of Great Britain,
United States ....
France,
Norway and Sweden -
Holland,
Russia,
Two Sicilies, ....
Austria,
Turkey,
Sardinia.
Denmark, ....
Portugal,
Spain,
Brazil,
Mexico,
No. of vessels
in commerce
and fisheries.
23,898
19,666
13,782
5,450
1,528
Not known.
9,174
6,199
2,220
3,502
3,036
798
2,700
Unknown.
Unknown.
Tonnage.
3,007,581
2,416,999
839,608
471,772
241,676
239,000
213,198
208,551
182,000
167,360
153,408
80,525
80,000
Unknown.
Unknown.
No. of guna to
each 100,000
tons of com-
merce.
97
.063
224
683
1,466
158
321
,461
265
709
440
r>TE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NEM
NAVY OF ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes,
was built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under
Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub-
lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred IL, 1007,
et seq.^ when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes.
From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns,
and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad-
miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in
1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu-
lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may
therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was ap-
pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stout
ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson's
Camden. In the time of Henry VIH. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200
tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the
Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588,
consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10
ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever buii.*. — Gibson'' s
Continuation of Camden.
ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF THE ROYAL NAVY OF ENGLAND, FROM HENRY
Vm's REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WAR, 1814.
Yr.
Ships.
Tons.
Men voted
1521
16
7,260
1578
24
10,506
6,700
1603
42
17,055
8,346
1658
157
57,000
21,910
J638
173
101,892
42,000
1702
272
159,020
40,000
Navy estim.
no account,
no account,
no account,
no account,
no account.
jei,056,915
Yr.
Ships.
Tons.
Men voted
1760
412
321,134
70,000
1793
498
4.-33,226
45,000
1800
767
668,744
1.35,000
1808
869 892,800
143.800
1814
901 966,000
146,aX)
Navy estim.
i;3,227,143
5,525,331
12,422,837
17,496,047
18,786,509
In 1814, Great Britairi had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in
18^, she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves-
sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home
service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis-
sion was 183.
NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that
of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the
French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French
navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr&atly
reduced in the late wars against England.
NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc-
cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and
White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th
parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south.
First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex-
plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842.
NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home
trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee-
dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside,
London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain ; but,
as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered
again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German,
taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest
degree of perfection. — Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of
lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this
time. — Anderson.
NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nemaea, where they were celebrated.
NEW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441
They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorus,
whoxiied by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed
them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were
observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle-
onas, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited
foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a
crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure
of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They
were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or
more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c-
Ilerodotus.
NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galle
of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846.
NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time
bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians,
is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was
the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of Grod, for
that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not
herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as
distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ;
that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was
subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as
other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly
applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant
go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread,
and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma-
tion nor auricular confession, &/C. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin.
NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name
of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun-
try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was
governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of
Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were
united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see
Holland and Belgium.
NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island
was taken by the French, Feb, 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at
the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the
Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies.
NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America
under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go-
vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See
these respectively.
NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi-
nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It
came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was
made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several
times afierwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it
has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended,
1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858; in 1830, 269,328;
in 1840, 284 574.
NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a
continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the
beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were tracer^
19*
442 THE world's progress. f AEW
by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was
discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east
and north-east from 38® south, and ascertained its separation from New
Guinea ; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discoTe-
ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity,
which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found,
in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty
leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Diflerent parts of
the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east-
ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of
Greorge III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri-
tish dominions. See New South Wales.
m^yf JERSEY. One of the United States; first settled by the Dutch from
New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finns on the De-
laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by
Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lonl Berkley
and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued
by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a
company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at
Salem, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi-
culty about titles, &c.)and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under
royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered
much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in
1790, 184,189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306.
NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from
about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash-
ington—an area of about 200,000 square miles. The country taken posses-
sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of
Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or
fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F^, and
founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards
after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between
the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with
Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is
yet (July 1850) undecided.
NEW SOUTH WALES. See Neiu Holland. The eastern coast of New Hol-
land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England,
in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that
the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, January 20, 1788 :
but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the
head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital.
NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next year
eleven days were left out of the calendar — the third of September, 1752,
being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego-
rian Calendar, which see^ and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200,
there was no difference of stj'les ; but there had arisen a difference of ele-
ven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be-
forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates
the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this
variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ-
ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices.
NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the
oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed.
NEW J DICTIONARY OP DATES. " 448
The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre-
sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans
sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ;
and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of
letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho-
sen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the
government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on
New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a crowd, all in new clothes, when
two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great
deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens,
together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity offered their vows
for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an
oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding
year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor,
and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word.
The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is
in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefiy in New York,
this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from
the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed
in Paris.
NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who having consi-
dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of
the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the
name of Strenae, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry,
and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town,
they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to
the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came
into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa-
thers wrote ver}^ strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo-
ralities committed under that cover and protection ; but since the govern-
ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is
still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed
in the United States.
NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of
Manhattan, Avbcro i\(i\v York city now stands, were discovered by Henry
Hudson, an Englsiinuin, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently
settled on Manliattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En-
glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to
England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in
1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a ncAV patent, 1674 ; first legisla-
tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta-
blished by law, 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 5 colony took an active part in
French war, 1756, and tlie war of Independence ; city captured by English,
1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution
by 30 to 35, 1788 ; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in
1732, 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 5 in 1810, 959,049 : in 1820, 1,372.812 ; in 1840,
2,428,921. < . >
T'EW YORK. City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614; fort built by them at
S. point of the island, 1623 ; surrendered to the English, 1664 ;
value of all the proi)erty in the town in 1668, was ^78.231 ; city taken by
the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States
Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the Uoited
States, at the City Hall in Wall-street. April 30. 1789 ; yellow fever pre-
vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in
444 THE world's progress. [ NEW
the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property
valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood,
1846 ; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration
of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790,
33,131 ; m 1810, 96,373 ; in 1880, 202,689 ; in 1840, 312,710.
NEW ORLEANS, City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to
the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French, 1800; purchased by the
United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between
the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in
which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the
Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population
in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,310; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448
slaves.
NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines
were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 1239 ; but in 1306,
the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation,
chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which
were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti-
nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this
^ place for more than 500 years.
NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista.
June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert,
1683. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the
English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from
Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in
1677. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in-
creased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 ships, and
sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa-
milies reside here all the year ; and in the fishing season, beginning in May
and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland,
which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New-
foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A
bishopric was .established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great
portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at ^1,000,000 sterling,
June 9, 1846.
NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh
account of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — V Es-
trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times. — Addi-
son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective
new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent
practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters
of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; —
importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters
of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper.
NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi-
dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger
L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer^ and continued
nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gazette. A
publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had
NEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445
previously appeared ; it was called the English Mercury* and came out un»
der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the
Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year.
In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and
in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pul>
lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which
the following were the titles :-
England's Memorable Accidents.
The Kingdom's Intelligencer.
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par-
liament.
The Mercurius Aulicus.
The Scotch Intelligencer.
The ParliamenVs Scout.
The ParliamenVs Scout's Discovery, oi
Certain Information.
The Mercurius Civicus, or London's In-
telligencer.
The Country's Complaint, Sfc.
The Weekly Account.
Mercurius Britannicus.
A paper called the London Gazette was published August 22, 1642. The
London Gazette of the existing series, was published flrst at Oxford, the
court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at
London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and
pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — Salmon's Chron. Newspa-
pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : —
In 1810 - - -20,172,837
In 1820- - -24,862,186
In 1825 - - - 26,950,698
In 1830 - . - 30,158,741
InlS35 . . -32,874,652
In 1840 - . - 49,033,384
In 1843 . • - -56,443,977
In 1849 - . - 76,569,235
In 1753 - - - 7,411,757
In 1760 - - - 9,404,790
In 1774 - - - 12,300,000
In 1790 - - - 14,035,639
In 1800 - - - 16,084,905
The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849
was 603, viz: 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland,
and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London
newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of .666,458 25. ; in the
English provincial newspapers, 834,729, yielding to the crown a revenue of
je62,604 135. 6^. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying jell,026 45., and in the
Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty £18,075 165. (Sd.
NEWSPAPERS, &c. in the United States. The first was the " Boston News
Letter,'^ in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston
Gazette, 1719; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia,
started one day after the last. First New York Gazette, in 1725 ; first
newspaper in the Carolinas at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga-
zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736.
In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers ; in 1810, in the United
States, 356 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit.
NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de France, established
by Renaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827.. when
it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced
1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Con-
stitutioneUe and the Journal des Dehats have long had the largest circula-
tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri-
odical Lit.
NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pue''s Occurrences, pub-
lished in 1700: Faulkner's Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a
man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head,"
1728. — Suppknient to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers,
* The full title is, "No. 50, The English Mercuric, published by authoritie, for the preveij'ica
of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer. No. 50." It descnSes
the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A joumall of what passed since the 21st of lhi«
month, between her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirall to
the Lordea of council."
I It is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, and tljat
t^e first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in lb22.)
446 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ Nn
is the Freeman'' s Journal^ founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about the year
1765. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest
of the provincial prints, was established in 1768. — Idem,
NEY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince
of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals ojf
France. After the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath
of allegiance to the king-, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France
from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded
the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris.
• March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he
fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five
horses having been shot under him, untJ night and defeat obliged him to
fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guar-
anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken
in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to
trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of
Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced
to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly
fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815.
NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by
the first general council held there in the palace of Constantine the Great.
In this celebrated council, which assembled a, d. 825, the Arians were con-
demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set-
tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter.
Nile, battle of the. one of the greatest in British naval history, between
the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora-
tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the
celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken,
two were burnt, and two escaped. August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called
the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of
baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was,
*' Victory or Westminster-abbey !"
NILE. SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon,
in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives
no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the
source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of
Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in
1773. This river overflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to
the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to
the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the
inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were
drowned, and immense property lost.
NIMEGXJEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between
France and the United Provinces, 1678. Niineguen is distinguished in his-
tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the
British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 ; but were
defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov. 8, following.
NITRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by
Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav-
endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties.
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid,
nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas
was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discov-
ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. ,
nor] dictionary of dates. 447
NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they
had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to
distinguish them fVom the common people. The right of peerage seems to
have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first
granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of
Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de-
graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his utter want of
property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in
June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume ; see also
Peerage.
NOBILITY or FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and
continued tb rough a long line, and various races of kings, until the period
of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered-
itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts,
raarquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ;
that all citizens take their family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings,
shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol-
umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A
new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary
peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See France
NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into confonA-
ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen
and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship
and form of church-government which are established and supported by the
state; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their
own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, was established
at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con-
formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed,
August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re-
signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles.
NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was un-
justly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to
the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several
of the bishcps, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a
double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates. May 1723.
NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed
a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in
1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement.
I'he British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was
amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to
England in 1790.
NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774,
by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle-
ment Avas made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay,
on the south side of the island. Tliis has latterly been made the severest
penal colony of Great Britain.
NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen-
tury this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called
Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles
the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader RoUo, a. d. 905 to 912,
and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first
duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his suc-
cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, in
448
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[NOU
1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in
the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The
English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal.
NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was
made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted
by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen
Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and
was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage."
The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British
navigators, in the years respectively stated : —
Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to
find a north-west passage to China,
Bailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find
a north-west passage to China - 1576
Captain Davis's expedition to find a
north-west passage - - - 1585
Barentz's expedition - - - 1594
Weymouth and Knight's - - 1602
Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken
(See Hudson's Bay.) • - - 1610
Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612
Baffin's.— See Baffin's Bay - - 1616
Foxe's expedition - - • - 1631
[A number of enterprises undertaken
bv various countries, followed.]
Middleton's expedition - - • 1742
Moore's and Smith's - - - -1746
Heame's land expedition - - 1769
Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul-
grave, his expedition - - - 1773
Captain Cook in the Resolution and
Discovery - - - July 1776
Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789
Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790
The Discovery^ captain Vancouver, re-
turned from a voyage of survey and
discovery on the north-west coast of
America - - Sept. 24, 1795
Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815
Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's
expedition in the Z)oro;Aea and Trent 1818
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the
Isabella and Alexander • - 1818 ;
Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla !
and Griper - - May 4, 1819 j
They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820
Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the Fwy
and Hecla - • - May 8, 1821
Capt. Parry's third expedition with the I
Hecla - - - May 8, 1824 1
Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having |
attempted a land expedition, again j
sail from Liverpool - FebT 16, 1825 I
Captain Parry, again in the Hecla,
sails from Deptlord - March 26, 1827
And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827
Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re-
turn from his arctic expedite ^n, after
an absence of ^bur years, arid when
all hope of hi£ return had been near-
ly abandoned - - Oct, 18, 1833
Capt. Back and his companions arrived
at Liverpool from their perilous Arc-
tic Land Expedition, after having
visited the Great Fish River, and ex-
amined its course to the Polar Seas
Sept. 8, 1835
Captain Back sailed from Chatham in
command of His Majesty's ship Ter-
ror, on an exploring adventure to
Wager River. [Captain Back, in
the month of Dec. 1835, was award-
ed, by the Geographical Society, the
king's annual premium for his polar
discoveries and enterprise June 21, 1836
Dease and Simpson traverse the inter-
vening space between the discover-
ies of Ross and Parry, and establish
that there is a north-west passage
Oct, 1839
Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in
the Erebus and Terror leave Eng-
land - - - May 24, 1845
Capt. Ross returned froin an unsuccess-
ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849
Another expedition (one sent out by
lady Franklin) in search of sir John
Franklin, consisting of two vessels,
sailed from England, April-May 185C
Still another, consisting of two vessels,
the Advance and Rescue, liberally
purchased for the purpose by Henry
Grinnell, a New York merchant, and
manned at Government cost from the
U. S. navy, under command of lieut.
de Haven, sailed from New York
May 1850
NORTH CAROLINA, one of tug UNITED STATES. First i)ermanent settle-
ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who tied from religious per-
* The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radclifle, on his fatal voyage for
discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the
court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and rourtiers appeared
at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the
noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal object of the parade
was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to
death, on the coast of Lapland.— HacA-/ut/f.
N(JL 1 DICTIONARY OF DATIits. 449
secution, about 1660. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced
the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chief
magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility.
This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas-
ed by the crown for ^£17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720.
NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali-
ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex-
cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The
city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark
in 1378; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were
united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex-
change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was
proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two
countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi-
navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of
Charles XIV., Fob. 5, 1818. See Siccden,
NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notabks of France was con-
vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI , in 1788. The deranged state
of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled
Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his j^lan, but any reform militated too much
against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any
good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England: and Louis, having
lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons.
de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General
were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, v^hich
see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish
notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by
him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain.
NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs,
in the first century. — Dw Fresnoij. This office was afterwards changed to a
commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their
authenticity in any other country.
NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622. by the Scotch, under sir William Alex-
ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name
of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed
rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of
Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745. and 1758 ; but was again confirmed
to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784;
and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets.
NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its
name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713
B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators
(for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished
to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius
Caesar, and Augustus; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying,
" What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Cajsars 1 "
NOVI, B.^TTLp; OF, in which the French army commanded b)'' Joubert was de-
feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799.
Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several
other distinguished ofiicers. A second battle fought here between the Aus-
trian and French armies, w^hen the latter were signally defeated, January 8,
1800.
NULLIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right
450 THE world's progress. [ OAT
claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature
of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against the
Nullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C,
same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-i)resident of the United
States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in
consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834.
NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the
Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge
to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans.
141 B. c. — Livy. It continued for fourteen years; and though Numantia
was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The
inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af-
ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu-
mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely
opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the
Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be-
gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of tlieir horses, and afterwards on
that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill
and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all
destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the
triumph of the conqueror.
NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In
early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of
Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission
to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu-
tion.
NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of
St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in
France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360.— /)2^
Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald,
king of Kent, 630. — Dugdalc''s Monastlcon Anglicamim. See articles Abbeys
and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany,
in Julv, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan.,
1790. "
O.
GATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Gates was a wicked man, at one time chap-
lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct,
he became a lecturer in London ; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in-
vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons.
Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed,
A. D. 1678, Gates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James
IT.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip-
ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment ibr life, 1685 ;
but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689.
OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced
by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a
judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub-
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first
framed and administered 3 James L, 1605. — Stowe's Chron. Of abjuration,
being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com-
mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and
OGY "1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 451
abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William III. 1701.
Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528 ; and the words " So
help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550.
OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of
an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths
to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a
decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables,
the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths
less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has
left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients
swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as,
for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those per-
sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above
any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair. —
OBELISK. The first mentioned in history Avas that of Rameses, king of
Egypt, about 1485 b. g. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to
their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ;
one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the
pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about
14 B. c.
OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the
temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was
another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at
Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was
at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel,
1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. a. d.
1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers make
their calculations.
First modern meridional instrument,
by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540
First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561
Tycho Urahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1570
Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1057
Jloyal (French) - - . - 1607
IU>yaI Observatory at Greenwich - - 1075
Observatory at Nuremberg - -1678
At Uuecht 1090
OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports,
and the tentl in ttie year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has
still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which
the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered
it to be called Faustinus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the
emperor; Commodus would have had it called Invictus ; and Domitian
Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars.
ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions
accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps
the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are
those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about
757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ;
and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes
were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing
is that of our court poets at this day.
OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste
200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other
Berlin, erected under Leibnitz'
3 direc-
tion
-1711
At Bologna - - *
- - 1714
At Petersburg -
-1725
Oxford, Dr. Raddiffe
- - 1772
Dublin, Dr. Andreics -
• 1783
Cambridge, England
- -1824
Cambridge, Mass.
New Haven -
.
Cincinnati
452 THE world's progress. [ omu
than the universal deluge ; but according to some writers, if it at all oc-
curred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country.
See Deluge.
OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta,
April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin-
nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New
Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature
met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con-
necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in
1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and w^as admitted into the Union,
1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in
1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467.
OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham,
about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was
the prize at the Panathenaean games. It was the custom of the Jews to
anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings,
Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid
seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress.
Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be
resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the
process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar-
tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale.
OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802.
OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym-
piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus
was successful at the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in
being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe-
riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in
772; the third, in 768; the fourth, in 764; the fifth, in 760; the 10th in
740, &c.
OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were, insti-
tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every
fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus,
now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those
who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun-
trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of
wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops,
1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules ; and were revived
by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — DitfresnoT/.
OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having
drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said
to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele-
brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty-
four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were
seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed
that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of
the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri-
dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with natun^
to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin.
OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the London
circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach pr^jprietor named
Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro-
bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In New
OPT ]
DICTION.\RY OF DATES.
45)
York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830, There were 465
licensed in New York in 1849.
OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of
the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other
dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with
him, A. D. 1^90.— Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the
chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob-
tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672,
was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in
London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build-
ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel
were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres
a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's
Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive
nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain
refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled " Polly."
This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication
with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200/.,
whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gay.
OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great
mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company for the
regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a.d. 1756. See
article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by
lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi-
guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside-
rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal.
OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of
Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen-
tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of
our most flourishing as well as useful sciences.
[.Tansen and Galileo have also been
staled to be the inventors.] - -
Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621
Law of refraction discovered by Snell-
ius, about - - - a. D. 1624
Reflecting telescope, .Tames Gregory - 1663
Newton - - 1666
Motion and velocity of light discovered
by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667
[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190
millions of miles in sixteen minutes.]
Double refraction explained by Bartho-
linus - - - - - 1669
Newton's discoveries - - - 1674
Telescopes with a single lens, by
Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690
Polarization of light, Iluygens, about - 1692
Structure of the eye explained by Petit,
about - . - - . 1700
Achromatic telescope constructed by
Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733
Constructed by Dollond, most likely
without any knowledge of Hall's - \7bl
Herschel's great reflecting telescope,
erected at Slough - - - - 17S0
Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1307
Ramage's reflecting telescope erected
at Greenwich - - - - 1820
424
300
280
no
120
- 1108
Burning lenses known at Athens at
least - - - - B. c.
Two of the leading principles known
to the Piatonists - - - -
First treatise on, by Euclid, about
The ma^nifj ing power of convex glass-
es and concave mirrors, and the pris-
matic colors produced by angular
glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D.
Treatise on 0[)tics, by Ptolemy
Greatly improved by Alhazen -
Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv-
en by Roger Bacon about - - 1230
Spectacles (said to have been) mvented
by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300
Camera obscura snid to 'have been in-
vented by Baptista Porta - - 15G0
Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges,
about - - - . - 1571
Telescope made by .Tansen (who is said
also to have invented the micro-
scope), about - - - - 1609
[The same instrument constructed by
Galileo, without using the produc-
tion of .Tansen]
Astronomical telescope suggested by
Kepler 1611
Microscope, according to Huygens, in-
vented by Diebbel, about - - 1621
iiPTlC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been
N. Varole. a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1538. — Now
Diet.
454 TIIE world's progress. - [ ORD
ORACL!^S. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa-
mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 fe. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles
were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what
would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to
mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several
sorts of oracles ; as fir A, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God
spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly,
visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep nor
awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when tliej'- were accompanied
with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued
with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ;
fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be-
ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but
it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere ; Pardon.
ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe,
and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas-
sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives,
and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of
Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories
in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey
count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter
and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other
domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau
family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau
in 15*30. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England,
landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his
queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689.
ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio
in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in
1732.
ORCHARDS, As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear
to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century,
although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre-
viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon.
ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term
signifying the. judiciary determination of accusations for criminal off*ences
by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions
taken from the codes of tJie Germans. That by fire was confined to the
upper classes of the peo})]e, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence
the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women
accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in-
nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this
day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre-
suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare-
footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry
burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were
judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used
from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol-
' The water ordeal was performed in eiiher hot or cold r in cold water, the parties suspected
were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course of
nature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or legs into scalding water, whick if they
brought out without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime.
ORR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455
ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III., 1261. — Lmo Diet. Rymer's
Fcddcra.
ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such things as a vague and
absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was
to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and
"ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ;
and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina-
tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe-
culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination.
OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America.
First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1592 ; by sir Francis
Drake, 1578; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en-
tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States,
May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson,
1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur
Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of
the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813:
occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of
the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi-
ded at the 49tli parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole
of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr.
McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18,
1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta-
blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848.
ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about
220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at-
tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The
organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first apj)lied
to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellarmine. Organs were
used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. It
is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 816,
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an
organ with twelve })airs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile
off; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount
of Olives. Tlie organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60
stops, and 8000 pi[)es. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes.
The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human
voices.
ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the
Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem.
ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark
to Scotland in a. d. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of
money, in 1168. Th(5 Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; and united with
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of
Orkney was founded by St, Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm
by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about
1689.
ORLEANS, SiEOE of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury,
Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as
its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it
was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan
of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege
of Orleans, wiien the duke of Guise was killed, 1563.
ORRERY. The employment of j)lanetary machines to illustrate and explain
456 THE world's progress. [ov>
the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the
construction of the clepsydrae and other horological automata. Ptolemy
devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130.
The planetary clock of Fin^e, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of
De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, AA'as invented by
Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr.
Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has
been greatly improved of late years.
O^TEND. This town is famous for the Icng siege it sustained against the Spa-
niards, from July 1601 to September 1604, when it surrendered by an honor-
able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized
Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the
allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In
the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen
Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the Frencli once more took Ostend, which they
evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794.
OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip-
tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years'
banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for
fear they might set up for tyrants over their native countrj^ but without
any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been
first introduced by the tyrant Hippias; by others it is ascribed to Clys-
thenes, about 5.10 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they
most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and
presented it to the senate. U])on a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest
written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But
this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common-
wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice,
Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing
Hyperbolus, a mean person.
OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of
Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it
was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai,
a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and
carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the
district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com-
pelled to place herself under the y)rotection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She
retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by
admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei-
zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844.
OTTERBURN, Battle op, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl
of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou-
glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob-
tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle
the ballad of Ckevy Chase is founded. — Walsinghayn.
O'lTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman [.
on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey.
OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of
their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re-
warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being
consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the
honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be
allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called
ovation, because the genei-al offered a sheep when he came to the capitol,
PAl]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
457
whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius
Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c.
OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered by
captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden
resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island-
ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostaffe
till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub-
mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook
and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been
a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re-
vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though
the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving
the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest.
bishop of Winchester ; first called St.
Mary of Winchester - - - 1375
Oriel College. King Edward II. ;
Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334
COLLEGES.
All Souls' College, founded by Henry
Chichely, abp. of Canterbury a. d. 1437
Baliol. .John Baliol, knt., and Deborah
his wife ; he was father to Baliol king
of the Scots - - - - 12G3
Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop
of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509
Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ;
and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532
Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop
of Winchester ... - 1516
Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex-
eter 1314
Hertford College ... - 1312
Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen
Elizabeth 1571
Lincoln College. Richard Fleming,
1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop
of Lincoln .... 1475
Magdalen. Waynflcte, bishop of Win-
chester - - - - - 1458
Merton ('ollege. Walter de Merton,
bishop of Rochester - - - 1274
New College. William of Wykeham,
Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R.
Whitwick, clerk - - - 1620
Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield,
clerk, confessor to queen Philippa,
consort of Edward III. - - - 1340
St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557
Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 1554
University. Said to have been founded
by king Alfred, 872 J founded by Wil-
liam of Durham - - -1172
Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and
Dorothy his wife - - - - 1612
Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent-
ley in Worcestershire; it was orig-
inally called Gloucester College - 1714
HALLS.
St. Albans .... 1547
St. Edmund's - - * - 1269
St. Mary's .... 1616
St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602
New Inn Hall .... 1392
OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most iinj)ortant agents in the chemical
phenomena of nature, and the processes of art. discovered by Dr. Priestley,
Aug. 1774.
P.
PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in
A. D. 1540.
PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen-
tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be-
lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure
us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be-
lief. Constantino ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout
the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the
reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tlllemont.
PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt.
Osymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting
2100 B. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a
method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 b. c. The ancients
considered Sicyon the nursery of j)ainters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said
to have been the inventor of tlie grotes<]ue. 332 b. c. — Pliny. The «^rt was
20
458 THE world's progress. [ PAi
introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, who on that account
was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy.'^ The first excellent pictures were
brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus,
not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint,
ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the
Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived
about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen-
erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in
oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the li rst who studied perspec-
tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which
time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court.
PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity
was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting por-
traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in
Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in
Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708: painted his first portrait in Lancaster,
Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738 ; first painted in
1760; he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain.
Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode
Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (New
Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists
in succession in the United States, See Dunlap^s Arts of Design, &c.
PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew,
Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070.
Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy
of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines.
PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from
the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived
in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a
brief was granted to collect alms fbr them. 500 families went, under the
protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick,
where parliament granted them 24,000^. for their support. 3000 were sent
to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the
inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged
by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss
Protectants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7
Anne, 1709. — Anderson.
PALLADIUM. The statue oC Pallas, concerning whicli ancient authors disa-
gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was build-
ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the
oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium
was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks,
they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though
some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that
the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by -^neas, 1183 B.C.,
• Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended
for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the bird.s
came to pjeck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhas,iu3 then produced his piece, and
Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the paintmg." The curtain itself was tho
paintinff, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, " Zeuxis has deceived
the birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis!" Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, and wor«*
^ crown of gold, calling himself king t»f painters, 415 b. o.—PlKtarch.
pat] dictionary of dates. 461
and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple ot
Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome.
PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem,
multitudes of the people Avho were come to the feast of the Passover, took
branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations
and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm
Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their
hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga
palmaia, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven.
PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English
travellers from Aleppo, a. d, 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly
of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than
even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder-
ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman
power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the
place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the
city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, ia
1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce,
on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent
sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were
so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed
to touch one another.
PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles.
PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d.
504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a. d. 1137;
they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library
of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectcc Florentince.
PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention
of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper
round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality.
In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the
first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon-
don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama,'' to attract notice, and was
ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for
that purpose. He died 1806. Tlie panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard,
a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent
in dimensions, completed about 1816 ; since which numerous similar works
have been achieved.
PANTHEON at ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by
Agrippa, his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in
the wall, where the i)articular image or representation of a particular god
was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and
the roof covered with silver i)late. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the
Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda.
IWNTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among
the ancients They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and
Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of
stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the
same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem-
poraneous with our stage.
PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170
B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000; and of rags in 1319.
White coarse pai)er was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at partford,
460 THE world's progress. [iab
in England, 33 Eliz., 1590 ; and here the first paper-mills were erected.—
Stowe, Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an
act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690 ; before this time we paid
for these articles to France and Holland lOO.OOOZ. annually. The French
refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex-
clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in
1690.— A7iderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis
Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer.
The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier,
he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac-
turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made
tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and
four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830.
PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain
and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart-
ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved
in this country from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been
brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil-
lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling.
PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and
India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c.
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per-
gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript
of the Antiquities of Jusephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among
the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library
at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815.
PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains),
of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on
the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b, c. Parchment-books from this
time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the
Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long
before Eumenes's time.
PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward
III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege
sua dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies,
Stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ;
hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan-
tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But i\m king
cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri-
vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach-
ment of the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par-
doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice
which upsets Blackstone's tkeory.
PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed
264 b. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a.d.
1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university
of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the
Arundelian Marbles, which see.
PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town>
ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed
upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra-
vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it
fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438,
when the hungry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, great
FAR ] ~ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461
devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found
under their respective heads.
The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594
Hospital of Invalids - • - 1595
The Hotel Dieu founded - - - 1606
The Palais-Royai built - • - 1610
The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645
Arch of St. Denis erected - - 1672
The Palace of the Deputies - - 1722
The Military School - - - 1751
The Pantheon : St. Genevieve - - 1764
St. Denis founded - - ' A. D. 613
Rebuilt 1231
Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270
The Louvre built (see Louvre) - - 1522
Hotel de Ville ... - 1.533
The Boulevards commenced - - 15.36
Fountain of the Innocents - - 1551
The Tuileries built (see Tuileries) - 15G4
The Pont Neuf begun - - -1578
Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine,
and detached forts, with an ericeiiite of 15^ leagues, Avere commenced in Dec.
1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding X5,000,000 ster-
ling. See France.
PARK, MUNGO, his Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first
voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the
source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795 ; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after
having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertropi-
cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition.
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap-
pointed to a new expedition by government ; but never returned. The ac-
counts of his murder on tlio Niger were a long time discredited; unhappily
however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence.
It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa,
and all killed, with the exception of one slave.
PARKS. Tlie Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom-
pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first
great park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock,
I'ormed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen-
tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained
by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare
for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by
Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River,
although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733,
by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired
of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would
cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns,
your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter-
tained.
PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin
from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu-
tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken
from parler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's
mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name
was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France,
about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared
in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d.
1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same eflfect,
when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of
Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di-
rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account we
have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was
in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford,
that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three
parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly.— i^wr^fm'i
AnfuUs. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesseg, took
462 THE world's progress. [pas
place 49 Henry III., 1265. — DiigdaWs Siimmo?ises to Parliament, edit. 1686.
The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute,
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds.
It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing
laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done
in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the
religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward
VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke.
PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla-
centia) a. d, 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth
Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany,
with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni-
ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon
was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine-
bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma : the confederates, England, France,
and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory,
June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon-
ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 men, and four
generals, July 12, 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of
Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for
reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people
revolt ; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency ;
flees ; is brought back ; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont,
March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and
is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9.
PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not
being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius
having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and
an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp
reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus
wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In
France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off.
PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being
exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania,
Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over
all Asia, 250 b. c. ; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the
world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation,
who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The
last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were
annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes.
PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland,
for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the
second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke
Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav-
ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the
first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the
second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year; the third
was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other
similar treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name.
PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in
this way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of
idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and
to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at
the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth
PAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 463
century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo-
ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons
upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at
night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the
name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533.
PASSOVER. A solemn f(?stival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem-
oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de-
parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp-
tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they
being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before
and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated in
the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher.
PATAY, Battle of, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (tliu
Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was
taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence
of this victory, Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was
crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full
armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc.
PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted
for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They Avere
first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about
which time tlie property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures
were secured by letters patent.
PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity
among tlie Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian
church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti-
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa-
triarchs till the 7 th century.
PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the
world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church
is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been
a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans,
was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He
explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church
is supposed to ha*v^e been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and
to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantino. This was demolished by
the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the
great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London,
commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present
cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ;
and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1676, and the
whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo-
pher Wren.
Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet, I Length of St. Peter's, Rome - 669 feet.
Its greatest breadth - • 223 Its greatest breadth within • - 442
Height from the ground - - 340 | Height from the ground - • 432
PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved
their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave-
ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and
was constructed 312 b. c. In England there were few paved streets before
Henry VI I. 's reign. London was first paved about the year 1683. Wood
pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847.
PAVIA, Battle of, between the French and Imperialists, when the former
were defeated, and their kin^, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valor,
464 THE world's PROGPwESS. f PEl,
and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender
himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of
the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived
in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdu, madame, fors
Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian
soldiers, ^0 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848.
PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de-
posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about
A. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers
was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III.,
1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively
of London, 1127.
PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo-
dem naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and
absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed
, like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at
80,000Z. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip 11. of the size
of a pigeon's egg, was valued *at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996Z. A pearl
spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal
to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The
pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of
Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to
110,400Z.
PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz
Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first
peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by
Richard II.. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by
Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of
Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by
Henry U. The house of lords consisted of, viz : —
At the death of George III. - 339 peers.
At the death of George IV. - 396
At the death of William IV. - 456
In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454
At the death of Charless II. - 176 peers.
At the death of William III. - 192
At the death of Anne • - 209
At the death of George I. - 216
At the death of George II. - 229
PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect
maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had
sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of
Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are
in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified
men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with
the gospel. 6. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in
virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at
Rome, and in Carthage about 412.
PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century.
The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil-
son, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince
Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after
of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over
his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard.
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty-
seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus,
with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting
of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It
b^an 481 b. c, and ended 404 b. c.
PER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 465
PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against
Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the
period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unre-
pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the
Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829.
PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted
in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession
upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of
penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced
into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad-
judged to the sin of fornication.
PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the
younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this
discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1666.—
Dufresnoy.
PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen-
cttes, &c. The order of Penitents of St Magdalen was founded at Mar-
seilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con-
gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about
1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about
1662.
PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William
Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes
and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres
sold by Penn for i;400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia.
The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the
legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors i:130,000 in lieu of quit-
rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac-
tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal
Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental
Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800,
when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,0Q0j
1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033.
PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up-
holsterer, A, D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the
undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's
Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke
of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to
the revenue of the crown. — Delaune, 1690. This institution was considera-
bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two-
penny-post. A i)enny post was lirst set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post-
(rffice.
PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and
in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called becaus6 it was celebrated fifty
days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast
of ^vecks, Exod. xxxiv. 22. because it was kept seven weeks after the
Pa&aover.
PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to
the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses
and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763.
— Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng-
gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor-
ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men-
tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh.
20*
466 THE world's progress. [pejr
PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines.
PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about
342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris-
totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same
river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the
Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo-
sophy was called Peripatetic.
PERJURY, In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early
Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the
Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo-
sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable
judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon
them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely
upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the
primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the
false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent.
In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563.
v^'ERONNE, Treaty of. Louis XL of France having placed himself in the
power of the duke of Bargundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con-
firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re-
strictive and humiliating character, a.d. 1468.
.■PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon
ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium
of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence,
massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn
and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive,
A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d, 95. The 8rd, in the reign of Tra-
jan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor
Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Decius,
more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their
habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The
8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under
Dioclesian. - In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with
Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with
ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres.
PERSECUITONS of the JEWS. See articles Jetvs and Massacres.
PERSECUTION of the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude
of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.-—
Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La-
timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great
numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner^s Eccles. Hist. Of the
Protestants in France, when n\imbers perished ; their assemblies were pro-
hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys
proclaimed against -all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro-
testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of
their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724.
See Massacres and Bartholomew.
PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire
was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per-
seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps
established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject
to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian
monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it
appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from
the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when
PET J
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
46r
Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became
monarchy, a. d. 229.
Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of
the Magi. — Justin - b. c. 2115
Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge-
nerally confounded with the king of
ha.cina..—Zanthus • • - 1082
the founder of the second Persian
Cyrus, king of Persia -
Lydia conquered by the Persians
Cyrus becomes master of all Asia
Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see)
Darius made knig of Persia
Revolt of the Babylonians -
Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed -
Darius equips a fleet of GOO sail, with
an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade
the Peloponnesus
The troops advance towards Athens, but
are met in the plains of Marathon, by
Milfiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe-
nians.— See Marathon
Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of
this year, at the head of an immense
force. The battle of Thermopylas -
Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost
200,000 of his troops, and is defeated
in a naval engagement off Salaniis -
Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of
250 vessels, takes several cities from
the Persians, and destroys their navy,
consisting of 340 sail, near the island
of Cyprus . . . .
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith-
ridates, the eunuch - B.C.
The assassin is put to death in a horrible
manner - . - - .
Reign of Artaxerxes
Cyprus taken from the Persians
Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See
article Retreat - - - -
560
548
536
525
522
512
498
- 490
The sea-fight near Cnidus - - 394
The Sidonians being besieged by the
Persians, set fire to their city, and perish
in the flames - - - 351
Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first
battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra-
nicus - - - ■ - 331
[For the exploits of Alexander in Per-
sia, see the article Mocedon.]
Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is
torn in pieces - - - - 331
Alexander founds the third or Grecian
monarchy .... 331
Alexander, in a moment of intoxication,
at the instance of his mistress Thais,
sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 330
[The riches of this town, whose ruins,
even as they exist at this day, are of
indescribable magnificence, were so
immense that 20,000 mules and 5000
horses were laden with the spoils.]
Persia was partly reconquered from the
Greeks, and remained tributary to
P.'uthia for near five hundred years,
till about - - - A. D. 250
Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a
common soldier, restores to Persia its
ancient title .... 229
Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 238
He IS assassinated - - - 273
Hormisdas reigns - - - . 273
Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel
and successful tyrant - - - 310
Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651
It fell under the dominion of Tamer-
lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402
Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732
He carried the Persian arms into India,
which he ravaged. See India • 1738
In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com-
petitors for the throne of Persia s[)rang- up and caused a period of slaughter
and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch.
PERU. Firs':; visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa-
niards, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest
of this country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others,
with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America,
which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three
small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with these, and two re-
inforcements of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid
the foundation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New
World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the
Spaniard.*, (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any
attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in-
dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new
Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March
21, 1828.
PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina. king of the West Saxons, to the pope at
Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called,
because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on
all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they
paid one penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed
168 THE world's progress. [ PHA
by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup-
pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden.
PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts-
wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting.
He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel,
and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup-
posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the
dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark
of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the
many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage
habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb, 1785,
at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy-
pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal."
PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantino. About
the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag-
nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes,
until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet,
and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of
324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious
hall ever constructed by human hands. See PauVs, St.
PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began
this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched
wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ;
and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a
house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial
city of Petersburg!! ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels
were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place.
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con-
sumed 11,000 houses ; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in
June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed.
The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia.
PETERSBURGH, Peace of, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring
all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh,
for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug. 5, 1772.
Treaty of Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805.
Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince
royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join
in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive
Norway, March 24, 1812.
PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four-
teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for-
mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject
of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned
with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at
Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348.
PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx
consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears
crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called
the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c.
PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He-
brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended
to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The
admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri-
tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii. 9.
pjjl ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469
PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and
esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white
marble and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires
were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this
ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100Z. English, if
Attic • or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon
it—" king Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but
Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own
name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote
the above inscription.' When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's
name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible;—
"Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for
the benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c.
PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Caesar and Pompey, in which the for-
mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar. in all its
consequences. Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others, 1200.
Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his
army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After
this defeat, Pompe>= fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or-
der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on
the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that
way, till it Avas burnt by his faithful freedman Philip.
PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo-
ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay
in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view
to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre-
sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at
Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July
4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken
by the British, Sept. 26, 1777 ; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven-
tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17tli of Sept. following, agreed on a
constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798.
Congress removed to Philadelphia^ 1800. United States Bank established
here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846.
Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96,664; in 1830,
167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423.
PHILIPPI, Battle of, between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side,
and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former
obtained the victory. Two battles were fought : in the first, Brutus, who
commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care
of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him
through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command-
ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself
surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and
soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b, c.
— Bossuet.
PHILIPPICS, This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De-
mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero^s Orations (the
second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which
latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b.c.
THILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi-
pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri-
ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521.
PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his-
tory, which is only the knowledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the
470 THE world's progress. [ PHI
knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon wliich
natural eflfects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of
philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c.
See Moral Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their
schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has
undergone four great changes: — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and
superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason
and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper-
nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa-
tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided
between the two last.
PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which
some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all
imperfect. metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid-
ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per-
petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have
cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a loiig time,
without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in
relation to this subject, see Alchemy.
PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1G67, by Brant, who procured
it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from
bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist,
1670, and by the hon.* Mr. Boyle, about tlie same time. — No^iv. Did. Phos-
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear-
lier ; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy-
drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812.
PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod-
ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim
improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre-
nological Society has been established in London.
PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer-
tain herbs.- The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed
to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let-
ting.— Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen
a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which
he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner.
— Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; '' and
the priests," says Cabanus, ''soon seized upon the province of medicine,
and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands
of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it
from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the
formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi-
cine, about 629 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine
and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d.
131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery
of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new
system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628.
.PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching
from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of
the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and
effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term.
The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi, and Hebrew and
Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu-
larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 696
PIG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471
B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic
schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe.
PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy-
sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy
or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of
the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it
is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc-
ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases.
Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see.
PHYSIOGNOMY, This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are
discovered, chiefly Irom the features of the face. The origin of the term is
referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a
fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the
last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system.
Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck
with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at
which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776.
PIANO-FORTE. Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present-
ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after,
G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes
with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in-
strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by
Frttiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766; and have been since
greatly improved by others here.
PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable
conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau
arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con-
fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the
6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar-
ticle Georges, &c.
PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by
Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI.
of France, who was at the time in feeble health, ISdO. —Mezerai. See ar-
ticle Cards.
PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about
the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudae, or Western Isles.
They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands
and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d
838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized
all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among tho
Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was
purchase 1 by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740 b, c.
See Painting.
?IGEON, The Carrier, The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The
ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when
they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with
uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought
proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let-
ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its
flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to
his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at iEgina 8
472 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. f Pi'/
pigeon stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded bj
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted
were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and
Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon-
don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them
arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the
remainder on the following day, Nov, 23, 1819. — Phillips.
PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church,
but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many
licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad,
7 Henry VI., 1428.
PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa-
mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know,
that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with
them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con-
victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put
through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded
with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En-
gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory,
by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and
putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury,
in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June
1837.
PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta-
tutes A. D. 1488. Those made of brass wire were brought from France
in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard,
queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri-
bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and
skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1643. —
Stowe,
PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated toAver, likewise called Campanile,
on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells,
stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely ot
white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with
a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side
from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is
188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have
been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the
architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another
cause, namely, from ,an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that
side.
PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the
saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket,
&LQ. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalr}^ of England, in
1644.
PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by
Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the
ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or
rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the
Bounty.
PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states-
man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (ivhich see), Dec.
27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right
honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died
pla]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
473
ITan. 23, 1806. Mi*. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and stiU
loftier pretensions : and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a
large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho-
nor by parliament, and a grant of ^40,000 to pay his debts.
PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called
Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name
was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm-
ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also
been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in
A. D. 142.
PLAGUE. " The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying
locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the
world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius. At Carthage the plague was so terrible
that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — BO'
ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred
thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b, c. At Athens, whence it
spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an a^vful devastation, 430 b. c.
Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt^ and Syria, and destroyed
2000 persons every day, 188 b. c. Pliny.
At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per-
sons perish daily, A. d. 78^
The same fatal disease again ravaged the
Roman enipire, a. d. 167.
In Britain, a plague raged so formidably,
and swept away such multitudes, that the
living were scarcely suthcient to bury the
dead, A. D. 430.
A dread/ul one began in Europe in 558, ex-
tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is
said did not cease for many years. Univ.
Hist.
At Constantinople, wlien 200,000 of its in-
habitants perished, A. d. 740.
[This plague raged for three years, and was
equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and
Greece.]
At Chichester in England, an epidemical
disease carried oil' 34,000 pcrsi)ns, 772.—
Will. Malms.
In Scotland., 40,000 persons perished of a
pestilence., a. u. 954.
In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ;
and in Ireland, 1095.
Again in London : it extended to cattle,
fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111.
— Holings.
la Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry
II. was forced to quit the country, 1172.
Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number
perished, 1204.
A general plague raged throughout Europe,
causing a most extensive mortality. Bri-
tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In
London alone, 200 persons were buried
daily in the Charterhouse yard.
In Paris and London a dreadful mortality
prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire-
land, in 1370.
A great pestilence in Ireland, called the
fourth, destroyed a great number of the
people, 1383.
30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti-
lence in liOnaon, 1407.
A^ain in Ireland, superinduced by a fam-
ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub-
lin was wasted by a plague, 1470.
An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and
throughout England a plague which de-
stroyed more people than'the continual
wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478.
— Jiapiu; Salmon.
The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating
sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. —
Delau7ie.
The plague at London so dreadful that Hen-
ry Vil. and his court removed to Calais,
moo.— Stowe.
Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in
three hours). In most of the capital
towns in England half the inhabitants
died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 11.
VIII., 1517.-,S'/ow;«?.
Limerick was visited by a plague, when
many thousands perished, 1522.
A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525; and
the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence
in Dublin, 1575.
30,578 persons perished of the plague in
London alone, 1603-1604. It was also
fatal in Ireland.
200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan-
tinople, in 1611.
In London, a great mortality prevailed, and
35,417 persons perished, 16^.
In France, a general mortality; at Lyons
60,000 persons died, 1832.
The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na-
ples (being introduced by a transport with
sokliers on board), raged with such vio-
lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit-
ants in six months, 1656.
Memorable plague which carried off 68,596
persons in London, 1665.
[Fires were kept up night and day to purify
the air for three days ; and it is thought
the infection was not totally destroyed till
the great conflagration of 1666.]
60,000 persons persons perished of the
plague at Marseilles and neighborhood,
brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720.
One of the most awful plagues that evei
raged, prevailed in Syria, UW.—Abbi
Mariti.
474 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ VLA
bers were carried off by a pestilent dis.
ease in 1804 and 1805,
Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much
resembling the plague, caused great mor-
tality, 1828.
The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832,
1834, 1849.
PLAGUE, continued.
In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried
off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah,
1773.
In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died
of plague, 1792.
In Barbary, 3000 died daily: and at Fez
^47,000 perished, 1799.
, In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num-
PLAGUES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, althongli
he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display
of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated the
plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Ameii-
ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red
Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet.
PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry
II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {which see), 1485. Anti-
quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the
best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of
that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil-
grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement; where being scourged with
broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or
Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity.
PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak-
ing likenesses by its use was first discovered b}" Andrea Verrochio, about
A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris,
whence it obtained its name.
PLAT-^A, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of
Persia, dnd Pausanias the Laceda3monian, and the Athenians. The Persian
army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their
lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few
nien ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen
Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The
plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau-
sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor
during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their
respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same
day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver-
ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account
of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont.
PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely
traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in
pubHc houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act
passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty
upon plate passed in 1784.
PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and
gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from
• the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery
color. It was unknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio
CJlloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. —
Greig.
PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle of; 14,000 British
troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet
on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time.
POK J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 476
PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece
and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 b. c. ;
but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The
Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a
proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The
plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the
20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went
with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The
plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down.
The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their
ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays
were first acted in England at ClerkenwcU, a. d. 1397. The first company
of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage,
and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in
1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See
Drama.
PLEADINGS, In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were
made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman-
French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued un-
til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to
be taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the
courts of law till 1731.
POET LAUREAT. Seldcn could not trace the precise origin of this oflSce.
The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III.
1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil-
lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on
his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth
year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of
wine. James L. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100
marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles
I. to 100/. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary
Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly.
NAMES OP PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OP QUEEN ELIZABETH.
Nahum Tate, died - - a. u. 1716
The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730
Colley Cibber, died - - - - 1757
William Whitehead, died - - 1785
Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790
Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813
Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843
William Wordsworth, died - - 1850
POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest
species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and
the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody,
and before painting in description.— //a^Z/^^. The exact period of the in-
vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea,
is said to be xhe most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub-
lime.— Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249
B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished
about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by
Archilochus, 700 b. c. — Du Fresnmj. For odes, see article Odes. We are
told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to
England by Aldhelme, or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of
the seventh century.
Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser,
who died - - - a. d, 1598
Samuel Daniel, died - - • 1619
Ben Jonson, died - - - 1637
Sir William Davenant, died - -1668
John Dryden ; he was deposed at the
revolution ... - 1688
Thomas Shadwell, died - • - 1G92
476
THE world's progress.
[POL
POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning
their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave
denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maxim us, who ordered them to be pub-
licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge
they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng-
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re-
markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death,
POITIERS, Battle op, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John
king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of
France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain.
The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through
which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings,
prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo-
rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them "wus only glory,
Sept. 10, l^m.— Carte,
POLAND. Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to
invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550;
and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the
emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz-
ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its
political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king
formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe-
tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in
1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland.
Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the dU'
cal dignity - - - a. d, 842
[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his
reign was so prosperous that every
succeeding native sovereign was call-
ed a Piast.]
Introduction of Christianity - • 992
Red Russia added to Poland - - 1059
Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of
Cracow with his own hands ; his
kingdom laid under an interdict by
the pope, and his subjects absolved
of their allegiance - - - 1080
He flies to Hungary for shelter; but is
refused it by order of Gregory VII.,
and he at length kills himself - 1081
Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102
Premislaus assassinated- - • 1295
Louis of Hungary elected king - - 1370
War against the Teutonic knights - 1447
The Wallachians treacherously carry
off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to
the Turks as slaves - - - 1498
Splendid reign of Sieismund II. - 1548
Stephen forms a militia composed of
Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom
he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575
Abdication of .lohnCasimir - -1669
Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724
Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763
He abolishes torture - - - 1770
An awful pestilence sweeps away
250,000 of the people - - -1770
The evils of civil war so weaken the
kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the
royal plunderers, the empress of
Russia, emperor of Austria, and king
of Prussia .... 1772
The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772
The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772
A new constitution is formed by the
virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791
[The royal and imperial spoliators, on
various pretexts, pour their armies
into Poland, 1792, et seq.]
The brave Poles, under Poniatowski
and Kosciusko, several times contend
successfully against superior armies,
but in the end are defeated. Kosci-
usko, wounded and taken, is carried
prisoner to Russia - - - 1794
Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794
Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794
[Here Suwarrow subsequently butch-
* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre-
viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe ; but in per-
mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and
Prussia had long been deadly enemies, ana both hated Russia ; yet they now conspired against a
country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a
scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives ! Russia seized Lithuania,
and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the
provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions j and Prussia secured the maritime districts.
The most extraordinarv circumstance attending this affair was the total inaction of the two greal
powers, England and France, whose supin?ness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policj
sa well as justice, and dejilored by the food and brave among mankind.— /fa^dn.
POL]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
477
POLAND, continued.
eni 30^000 Poles of all ages and condi-
tions m cold blood.]
Courland is annexed to Russia - - 1795
Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par-
tition of his kin^cdom - Nov. 25, 1795
Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh,
Feti. 12, 179S
Treaty of Tilsit (which see) - July 7, 1807
[The central provinces form the duchy
of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.]
General Diet at Wai^saw - June, 1812
New constitution - - Nov. 1815
Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820
Revolution commenced at Warsaw ;
the army declare in favor of the peo-
ple - - - Nov. 29. 1830
The Diet declares the throne of Poland
vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831
Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the
Russians lose 7000 men ; the Poles,
who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831
Battle of Ostrolenka ; signal defeat of
the Russians - - May 26, 1831
The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831
Grand Duke Constantino dies, June 27, 1831
Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) July 14, 1831
Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1831
[This last fatal event terminated the
memorable and glorious, but unfor-
tunate struggle of the Poles.]
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas,
decreeing that the kingdom of Poland
shall henceforth form an integral part
of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832
A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march
on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1840
Cracow occupied by the Austrians^ and
the treaty which had made it inde-
pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846
Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848
DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND.
1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as-
sassinated.
1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus;
he refused the title of king : deposed.
1300 Winceslaus.
1306 Uladislaus IV,, again.
1333 Casimir the Great, killed by a fall
from his horse, while hunting.
1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by
his daughter,
1383 Hedwigis, who married, in
1335 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em-
braced the Christian religion, and
took the name of
Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to
Poland.
1434 Uladislaus VL, killed in battle.
1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia.
1447 Casimir IV.
hWZ John Albert.
1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia.
1507 Sigismundl.
1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose
1573 Henry of Valois, ^uke of Anjou, sue
ceeding to the French throne.
1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl-
vania.
1587 Sigismund III., son to the king of
Sweden.
1632 Uladislaus VII.
1648 John Casimir, abdicated.
1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown.
1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter-
regnum for a year.
1693 Frederick Augustus IL, forced to re-
si^.
1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re-
tire in 1710.
1710 Frederick Augustus II., again.
1733 Stanislaus I., again.
1733 Frederick Augustus III.
176^1 StanislausAugustus resigns the crown.
So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing- old men
when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect.
POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pas-
rage
>. 550 Lechus I. His posterity held the
dukedom for about 150 years.
700 Cracus I.
* * Cracus II., assassinated by his brother.
* * liCchus II., deposed.
750 Venda, drowned herself
760 Premislaus. who on being elected was
named Lcscus or Less.
804 Lescus II., killed by the French.
810 Lescus III.
815 Popiel I.
830 Popiel II.
&42 Piastus, a couuiry peasant.
861 Zemovitus.
892 Lescus IV.
913 Zemomislaus. •
964 Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind.
999 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid.
1025 Miecislaus II., went mad.
1041 Casimir the Pacific.
1058 Boleslaus II., killed himself
i082 Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus,
1102 Boleslaus HI., surnamed Wry-mouth.
i.40 Uladislaus II., fled.
1U6 Boleslaus IV., the Curled.
1173 Miecislaus III., deposed.
1178 Casimir II., surnamed the Just.
1194 Lescus V., relinqmshed.
1203 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a
few months restored Lescus V. ; but
for bad conduct he was again forced
to relinquish the governrnent.
1203 Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired.
1206 Lescus V., a third time, being chosen
by the nobles, assassinated ; suc-
ceeded by his son, an infant.
1228 Boleslaus V., the Chaste.
1279 Lescus VL, surnamed the Black, son
of Conrad, brother of Lescus V.,
died 12.S9. An interregnum of five
years, when the Poles chose
478 THE world's progress. [ POM
POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con-
stellation called the LMtle Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne-
ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the
seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese
to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned
and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist.
POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe-
riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I.
1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The
London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The
London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by statute,
June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a
suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but
we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the
world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and
useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but
preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner.
POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A
science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness.
Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth
of Nations, 1776.
POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or
the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun-
ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. —
Henault.
POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re-
bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tykr), 1381. It was
again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed
by the head, viz.— a duke 100/., a marquis 80/., a baronet 30/., a knight 20/.,
an esquire 10/., and every single private person 12c/., 1667. This grievous
impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution.
POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted poly^my.
It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks^nd
Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who
took two wives; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca-
dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this oftence with death.
In England, by statute 1 James 1. 16U3, it was made felony, but with bene-
fit of clergy. This oflence is now i)unished with transportation. See
Marriages.
POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan-
guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot *Bible
termed the Comptutensian Pol3'glot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 ;
the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co-
pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483/.
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed
at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa-
ris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by
Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunei.
POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished
by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed
up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, acconqjanied by an earthquake, on the
night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen-
ed at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles were
POP J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
479
exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding"
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning
up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract-
ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc-
tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun.
Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried
city ; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1760.
r(.)NDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by
tlie French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and
was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in
January 1761, and was restored in 1763, Pondicherry was once more cap-
tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803.
rONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon-
tus Euximis) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus by Darius
Hj'Staspes. His successors Avere little more than satraps .or lieutenants of
the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name.
Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da-
rius Hystaspes - - - B. c. 487
Reign of iMithridates I. - - - 3&3
Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 303
Mithridates II. recovers it • - - 330
Mithridates III. reigus - • - 301
Ariobarzanes II. reitjns - • - 200
Mithridates IV. is besieged in hi.g capi-
tal by the Gauls, «kc. - - - 25'i
Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at-
tack upon the free ciiy of SiHO|-)e, and
is obliged to raise the siege by the
Rhodians - - - - 219
Reign of Pharnaces ; he'takes Sinope,
and makes it the capital of his king-
dom - - - - '- 183
Reign of Mithrid;ites V. - - -157
He IS murdered in the midst of his court 123
Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or
Eupator, receives the diadeui at 12
years of age - - - 123
Marries Laodice, his own siste/ - - 115
She attempts to poison him ; he puts
her and her accomplices to death - 112
Mithridates ma kes a glorious campaign ;
conquers Scythia^ Bosphorus, Col-
chis, and other countries - - 111
He enters Cappadocia • - - 97
His war with Rome - • - 89
Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. 86
Mithridates enters Biihynia, and makes
himself master of many Roman pro-
vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to
death - - - - - 86
Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Cheero-
nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain - 86
Victories and conquests of Mithridates
up to this time - - - - 74
The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un-
der Ldcullus, in two battles - • 73
Mithridates defeated by LucuUus - 69
Mithridaies defeats Fabius - - - 68
Rut is defeated by Pompey - 66
Mithridates stabs himself, and dies - 63
Reign of Pharnaces - - - 63
Battle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces
defeated by Caesar - - - 47
Darius reigns - - - - 39
Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns - - 36
Polemon II. succeeds his lather • A. d. 33
Mithridates VII. reigns - - - 40
Pontus afterwards became a Roman
province, under the emperors.
Alexis Comnenus founded anew empire
of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this
country, a. d. 1204, which continued
till the Turks destroyed it in 1459.
POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as
the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By
an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the conmion law, the poor were to
be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that
none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II.
impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor But no
compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry'VIII., 1535. The origin of
the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600.
In 1.580, the Poo:: Rates were • jG 188,811
1680, they amounted to - 665,,562
1698, they amounted to - - 819,(XX)
1700, they amounted to • 1,556.804
1785, they amounted to - 2,184,950
1802, they amounted to • 4,952,421
POPE. This title was originally given t
genus, A. D. 138; and ])(»[h^ BoiiifiH'
In 1815, the Poor Rates were
1820, they amounted to
1830, they amounted to
18-35, they amounted to
1840, they amounted to
1845, they amounted to
JB5,4 18,845
7,329,594
8,111,422
6,356,345
5,468,699
G^54'i,650
all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy-
jll. j)rocuiTd Phocas, emperor of the
480 THE world's progress. [ POP
East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho-
cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The
custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign
act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined
with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name,
on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John
XII. or XIII. See Names. John XYIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The
first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry
IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare-
footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority
was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the
pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Vinerh Statutes. Henry II. of Eng-
land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and
also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown
off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak-
ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of
England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308,
for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by
parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. —
Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books, 1641.
The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other
ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des-
titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VL was burnt in effigy
at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was
expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died at Valence,
August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was
dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo-
leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected
June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry.
May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov.
16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and
grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16, After being a i)risoner in his palace
for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov.
24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed
Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See
Italy ; Rome; Reformation, <f'C.
POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION.
A.D. 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for : 1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months,
crime led to the reformation. i 1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just,
1522 Adrian VI. ' ""' " '^' " '
1523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII,
of England.
1534 Paul III.
1550 Julius III.
1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 daj's.
1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty.
1559 Pius IV.
1566 Pius V.
1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re-
formed the Calendar, (irhich see).
1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned.
1590 Urban VII, ; died 12 days after.
IGOo Leo XI. : died same month.
1005 Paul V.
1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent.
1623 Urban VIII.
16^14 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel.
1655 Alexander VII. : liberal and learned.
1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief.
1070 Clement X.
1676 Innocent XL ; reformed abuses.
1689 Alexander VlIL
1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism.
1700 Clement XI.
1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth poniitF of
1590 Gregory XIV. I his family.
• *' When LouiSj king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander IIL at the castle
of Torci. on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the
reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into
the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His
arrogance was such, that ne obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold
his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeare.
He was elected 'n the popedom in 1154
pop]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
481
1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Ven
ice, as Pius VII., March 13.
1823 Annibal della Genga,Leo XII., Sept.28
1831 Mauro Capeliari, Greffory XVI.,Feb.2.
,^ . .^ ,ti, Pius IX., inaugurated
1846 Mastei Ferretti,
June 21, aged 54,
' June 16.
POPES, continued.
1724 Benedict XIU.
1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses.
1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious.
1768 Clement XIIL
1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli.
1775 Pius VI., February 14.
For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Views, from page
50 to page 115.
POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female,
named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda.
and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit.
On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being
, very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan-
dalous particulars follow ; "yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated
and believed without oftence." — Gibbon.
POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to
assassinate Charles II.; concerning which, even modern historians have
affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and
others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three
particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir-
pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason
as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the
scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680.—
Rapin.
POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best
and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c., be
stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to
contain 270 millions ; Asia, 665 millions ; Africa, 115 millions; America, 76
millions ; and Australasia, 25 milHons. The population of England in a. d.
1377 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483, it
had increased to 4,689,000. The following tables of the population of the
United Kingdom are from official returns : —
POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOlL ONE HUNDRED YEARS.
Year 1700
Popu
ation 5,475,000
Year 1770
Population 7,428,000
1710 .
ditto 5,240,000
1780 - - . "ditto 7,953,000
1720 -
- - ditto 5,5G5.(J0U
1790 - . - ditto 8,675,000
1730 .
ditto 5,796.00<-)
1801 - - - ditto 10,942,&46
1740 -
- - ditto 6,064,<X>U
1821 . . . ditto 14,391,631
1750 -
ditto G,467.U(X)
1841 - - - ditto 18344,434
1760 -
. - ditto 6,730,000
POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.
Year 1790
Popidation .'3,029,827
Year 1830 Population 12,866,920
1800 -
ditto 5,3t»5,925
1S40 - - - ditto 17^,353
1810 .
- . ditto 7,239,814
[See the several States.]
1820 -
- - ditto 9,638,131
PRESENT POPULATION OP THB CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OP THE WORLD.
Chinese empire
Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000
Holland - - - 5,100,000
(Balbi) -
180,000,000
United States of
Dutch monarchy
Russia - - -
58,500,000
America* - 17,063,000
(.total) . - 14,750,000
Russian empire -
72,000,000
Turkey - . - 12,000,000
Bavaria - • - 4,600,000
France
36,500,000
Ottoman empire
Sweden and Nor-
Austria - - -
34,599,000
(total) - - 24,500,000
way- - - 4,550,000
Great Britain and
Persia - - - 11,800,000
Belgium- - - 4,500,0a)
Ireland -
27,000,000
Mexico - . 9,500,000
Poland - - 4,250,(K)0
British empire -
158,000,000
Kingdom of the
Portugal - - 3,950,000
Japan - - -
27,000,000
two Sicilies- - 8,750,000
Republic of Co-
Spain -
17,500,000
Brazil- - - 6,250,000
lumbia - - 3,360,000
Spanish empire
Sardinia- - - 5,800,000
Eccles. States- - 2,970,000
itotal) - - -
19,500,000 Morocco - - 5,200,000 1 British America • 2,950,000
• In 1840.
111 18:V). estinif
•21
ited at 22,000,0(
)0.
482
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[POR
I.ATION, continued.
Switzerland
2,450,000
St. Petersburgh •
Denmark • -
2,400,000
Vienna - - -
Hanover -
1,780,000
New York (1845)
Wirtemberg • -
1,680,000
Moscow
Saxony
1,650,000
Grand Cairo - •
Tuscany - - -
1,550,000
Lisbon
Baden
1,400,000
Aleppo -
CITIES,
Berlin -
Cities.
Inhab.
Amsterdam - -
London iParlia-
Madrid - -
mentary Ret.)
1,776,556
Philadelphia (1848)
Jeddo (reputed) -
1,680,000
Bordeaux - -
Pekin {reputed)
1,600,000
Bagdad
Paris -
1,000,000
Mexico ' - -
Nankin - - •
850,000
Rome -
Constantinople -
800,000
Rio Janeiro ^ • -
Calcutta -
710,000
Milan -
Madras • - -
435,000
Barcelona • ♦
Naples
410,000
405,000
395,000
371.000
355;000
335,000
298.000
280;000
^80,000
5258,000
247.000
^5,ax)
225,000
224,000
200,000
193,000
183,000
Hamburgh
Lyons
Palermo -
Marseilles
Copenhagen
Turin -
Seville
,,.. Warsaw
274,000 I Tunis
270,000 I Baltimore (1848)
Prague
Smyrna •
Brussels
Florence
Stockholm
Munich -
Dresden
Boston (1845)
Frankfort
172,000
168,000
147,006
146,000
145,000
143,000
142,000
141,000
138,000
134,000
133,000
132,000
130,000
122,000
lkl,000
113;000
114,000
114,000
110,000
PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent aimies, it being
formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under
ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making
porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried
on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d, 442, and here still the finest
porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after
which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresden
China.
PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth; burnt by
the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8,581 j in 1840.
15,082.
PORTO BELLO. -Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken
from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22,
1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica-
tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748,
and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the
rich commerce of Peru and Chili.
PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke
of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when
Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by
the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residence of
Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bona'parte, Elba, and France.
PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses
were established in the reign of Henry VIII.
PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo,
the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman
arms about 250 b. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall
of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 713. They kept
possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile,
assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone
most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of
Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na-
tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal,
which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093.
Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths
here - - - - a. d. 472
Invasion by the Saracens - • 713
The kings of Asturias subdue some
Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III.
establishes episcopal sees • - 900
Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish
kings, and is proclaimed king by his
army • - - - - 1139
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their
way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis
bon from the Moors
1147
por]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
48t
rORTUGAL, continued.
The kingdom of Algarve taken from the
Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189
Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father
of his country, who builds 44 cities
or towns in Portugal - - - 1279
Military orders of Christ and St. James
instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325
John I., surnamed the Great, carries
his arms into Africa - - - 1415
Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420
Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape
of Good Hope, discovered - - 1493
Discovery of the Brazils • - 1500
The Inc[uisition established - - 1526
The kingdom seized by Philip II. of
Spain 1580
The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and
place John, duke of Braganza, on the
throne. His posterity still possess
the crown .... 1640
The great earthquake which destroys
Lisbon. See Earthquake • - 1755
Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and
narrowly escapes death - - 1758
[This affair causes some of the first
families of the kingdom to be tortured
to death, their very names being for-
bidden to be mentioned; yet many
were unjustly condemned, and their
mnocence was soon afterwards made
manifest. The Jesuits were also ex-
pelled on this occasion.]
Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis-
pensation from the pope to enable
his daughter and brother to intermar-
ry. See Incest. - . - 1760
The Spaniards and French invade Port-
ugal, which is saved by the '^ alor of
the English - - 1762 and 1763
Regency of John (afterwards king)
owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 }
The Court, on the French invasion, !
emigrates to the Brazils Nov, 2, 1807 i
Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 |
Convention of Cintra (see article under i
that name) - ■ Aug. 30, 1808 I
Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 '
Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 !
Constitutional Junta - -Oct. 1, 1820 i
Return of the Court - - July 4, 1821 |
Independence of Brazil, the prince re- i
gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822
The king of Portugal suppresses the '
constitution - - June 5, 1823
Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel j
departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824 I
Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 \
KINGS OF
A.D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port-
ugal.
. 1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139
1185 Sancho L
1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Cras.sus, or
the Fat.
1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed.
1247 Alphonsus III.
1279 Dennis,
1325 Alphonsus IV
1357 Peter the Severe.
1367 Ferdinand I., died 13a3; an interreg-
num for 18 months.
Death of John VL - Feb. 18, 1826
Don Pedro grants a charter, and con-
firms the regency - April 26, 1826
He relinquishes the throne in favor of
his daughter Donna Maria > May 2, 1826
Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at
Lisbon - - - . Oct. 6, 1686
Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth-
ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826
Portugal solicits the assistance of Groat
Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1830
Departure of the first British auxiliary
troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1826
Don Miguel formally assumes the title
of king - - - -July 4, 1828
He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828
Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831
Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831
Insurrection in favor of the queen, in
which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831
Don Pedro's expedition sails from
Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832
At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him-
self regent of Portugal, on behalf of
his daujjhter - - April 2, 1832
He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832
After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca-
pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834
Don Miguel is permitted to leave the
country unmolested - May 31, 1834
Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834
The queen declared by the Cortes to be
of age - - - Sept. 15, 1834
Don Pedro dies - . - Sept. 21, 1834
Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of
Leuchtenberg), just married to the
queen, dies - - March 28, 1835
The queen marries prince Ferdinand of
Saxe Coburg - - -Jan. 1,1836
A sudden change of ministry leads to a
formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846
Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat-
ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846
[Oporto, where a revolutionary junta
is established, and other large towns,
are seized by the insurgent army.]
' Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos,
I Braga, Torres- Vedras, &c. , favorable
I to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes ; the
I Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men
1 in killed and wounded -May 1,1847
Intervention of England, France, and
' {Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847
I Claim of the United States on Portugal
j for damages in the war of 1812, re-
I sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis-
I bon - - - - July, 1850
PORTUGAL.
1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to
Peter the Severe.
1^33 Edward.
1438 Alphonsus V.
1481 John II.
1495 Emanuel.
1521 John III.
1557 Sebastian, killed in Afflcfti.
1578 Henry, the C/ardinal.
I 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Enian
' uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain,
who united Portugal to his other do*
minions, till 1640.
484
THE world's progress.
[POS
1750 Joseph.
1777 Mary Frances Isabella.
1799 John VI.
1826 Don Pedro ; he abdicates May 2, m
favor of his daughter.
1826 Maria de Gloria.
PORTUGAL, continued.
1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos-
, sessed the Spaniards, and was pro-
claimed king, Dec. 1.
1656 Alphonsus VI.
1668 Peter II.
1707 Jolin V.
POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who
erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the
first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed
post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800. —
Ashe. Louis XI. first established post-houses in France owing to his eager-
ness for nev7S, and they were the first institution of this nature in Euroj)e,
1470. — Henault. In England the plan commenced- in the reign of Edwarr!
rV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty
miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence
of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen With the
Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In
1543 similar arrangements existed in England, — Sadler's Letters. Post com-
munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype.
POST-OFFICE, The General, op England. See pi-eceding article. The first
chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by
queen Elizabeth in 1581.*
THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ.
In 1643 It yielded
1653 Farmed to John Manley,
Esq., for - - -
1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale,
Esq., for -
1674 Farmed for - - -
16S5 It yielded -
1707 Ditto - - . .
1764 Ditto
1800 Ditto . • - -
jE5,000
10,000
21,500
43.000
65,000
111,461
432.048
745,313
In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424,994
1815 Ditto - - . - 1.755,898
1820 United Kingdom - - 21402,697
1825 Ditto - - . -2,255,239
1835 Ditto - . -2,353,34/:
1839 Last year of the heavy
postage - - -2,522,495
1840 First year of the low rate,
1 penny for all distaaces 471,000
POST-OFFICE IN THE UNITED STATES. The first post-office in the colo-
nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general
post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de-
partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of
the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the
Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of
the cabinet. For successive Postmaster- Generals see Administrations. The
following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States
at different times since 1790.
Year.
No. of Post
Offices.
Amount of
Net Revenue.
Extent in miles
."'&%
of Post Rjada.
1790
. - - -^ 75 - .
- $5,795 -
- 1,875
1800
- . 903 - -
- 280,804
- 66,810 -
. 20,817
1810
. - 2,300 - -
- 551,684
- 55,715 -
. 36,406
1820
- 4,500 -
-1,111,927
- 72,492
1830
- 8,000 -
- I,a50,583
- 115,000
1840
- - 13.468 - -
- 4,539,265
- 155,739
1845
- - i4;ia3 - -
-4,289,842
. 143,940
1846
- -14,601 - -
- 3,487,199 1
■ 152,865
1847
- - 15,146 - .
-3,955,8931
- 153,818
1848
. - 16,159 - .
-4,371,077$
- 44,227 -
- 163,208
The nun
iber of dead letters returned qu,
irterly
is estimated at 450,000.
• Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week be-
iween Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only sent a single letter, which
was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay.
.: t In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures,
t The returns for 1846, 7, ana 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed March 3, 184?,
•"wJucing the letter postage to 5 rents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances.
pra] dictionary of dates. 485
POTATOES. The potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori-
finally carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw-
ins, A. D. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in
1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as
occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Waltei-
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the
county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until
1G20. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that
"patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding-
ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It is
affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine.
— BiUle?'. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great
alarm and distress, Oct. 1845.
POTOSI, Mines of. These mines. were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545,
and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the
form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in
Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in
comparison of what was formerly obtained.
POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times,
about A. D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part,
consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham.
The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some sup-
pose it was equivalent to an Attic mina^ or 3Z. 45. Id. Our avoirdupois
weight {avoir du poids) came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ;
it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chambers.
POWDERING THC HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad-
singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them-
selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the
high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered-
hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice
of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guinea for each person.
The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under •
7000Z. per year, and in Scotland about 250Z. It was abolished in Ireland.
PRiETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when
one praetor only was appointed ; bub a second was appointed in 252 b. c.
One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges
in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520,
two more praetors were created to assist the consul in the government
of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered,
and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province,
A. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Caesar increas-
ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to
64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till,
in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers
were reduced to three.
PRAGA, Battle of, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless
Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which
the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded
by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and
12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothoff' and Wawer, March 31, 1831.
PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some-
times state affairs ; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings
of France, wherein the rights of the Galilean church were asserted against
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's
letter by advice of his council in answer to high personages in particular
486 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ PRE
contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany
in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published the
Pi*agmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should
succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713,
and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity
thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, in
which most of the powers of Europe were engaged.
PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter,
who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) for
their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flee
with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money
behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and
the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla-
nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by tho
Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by the
French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was
taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same
year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1767.
In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia,
and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Brovvn^;,
was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was
killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but
he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege.
PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so
called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled himself
according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament
consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they were
to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parliament
themselves.
PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by
the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and
signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy
state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease.
The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intent
and import. — Ashe.
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris-
tian church about a. d. 190. — Eusebius. Prayers addressed to the Virgin
Mary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 693. The
mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface
n., A. D. 632.
PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most
of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws of
Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour-
tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency was
regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIIL, 1539 j
and the other, 1 George I., 1714.
THE QUEEN.
Prince of Wales.
Prince Albert.
Queen Dowager.
Queen's other sons.
Princess royal.
TABLE OP PRECEDENCY.
Princess Alice ; and other I Archbishop of Canterbury.
princesses.
Duchess of Kent.
Queen's uncles.
Queen's aunts.
Queen's cousins.
Lord Chancellor.
Archbishop of York.
*Lord high treasurer.
*Lord president.
*Lord privy seal.
' If of the rank of barons.
pre]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
4^7
PRECEDENCE, conthiued.
*Lord high constable.
tLord great chamberlain of
England.
•Earl marshal.
*Lord high admiral.
Lord steward of the house-
hold.
Lord Chamberlain,
Dukes, according to patent.
Marquesses, according to
their patents.
Dukes' eldest sons.
Earls, according to their pa-
tents.
Marquesses' eldest sons.
Dukes' younger sons.
Viscounts, according to their
patents.
Earls' eldest sons.
Marquesses' younger sons.
Bishop of London.
Bishop of Durham.
Bishop of Winchester.
All other bishops, according
to their seniority of conse-
cration.
Secretary of State, being a
baron.
Commissioners of the great
Barons, accordin;
patent!
to their
[All the above, except the
' '• •' ' 'd their
COMMONERS.
The Speaker.
Treasurer, comptroller and
vice-chamberlain oi the
household.
Secretaries of State, if they be
under the degree of baron.
Viscounts' eldest sons.
Earls' younger sons.
Barons' eldest sons.
Knights of the Garter.
Privy councillors.
Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster.
Lord chief justice of the
queen's bench.
Master of the rolls.
Vice-chancellor.
Lord chief justice of the com-
mon pleas.
Lord chief baron.
Judges and barons, according
to seniority.
Hereditary bannerets.
Viscounts' younger sons.
Barons' younger sons.
Baronets.
Bannerets for life only.
Knights of the bath.
Grand Crosses.
Knights commanders.
Knights bachelors.
Eldest sons of the younger
sons of peers.
Baronets' eldest sons.
Knights of thi Garter's eldest
sons.
Bannerets' eldest sons.
Knights of the bath's eldest
sons.
Knights' eldest sons.
Baronets' younger sons.
Flag and field officers.
Sergeants-at-Iaw.
Doctors, Deans, and ciian-
cellors.
Masters in chancery.
Companions of the bath.
Gentlemen of the privy
chamber.
Esquires of ttje knights of tjie
Bath.
Esquires by creation.
Esquires by office or com-
mission.
Younger sotjb of knights of
the garter.
Sons of bannerets.
Younger sons of knights of
the bath.
Younger sons of knights ba-
cheloi-s.
Gentlemen entitled to bear
arms.
Clergymen, not dignitaries.
Barristers at law.
Officers of the army and
navy, not esquires by com-
mission.
Citizens, burgesses, &c.
royal family, holi
precedence of rank by act
31 Henry VIII.]
PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably
appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of
the most perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It
was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet intro-
duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the
strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose
in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus.
a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470.
PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient
states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of
the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions
of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec-
tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel-
vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805.
PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called
from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the
New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling
elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting-
house in England was established by the Puritans at "Wandsworth, Surrey,
Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguish-
ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri-
• Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII.
t When in actual office only, by 1 George I.
N. B. Ths priority of signing any treaty or public testrument by ministers of state is taken l?j
fank of office, and net title.
488 THE world's progress. [ PRK
buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was
approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567. and finally settled by an act
of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with
England in 1707.
PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washinig^ton, unanimously elected
president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25
to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United
States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations.
PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from
the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the
eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton,
a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Stov^e's
Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806.
The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in ^ 811. and Applegath's fol-
lowed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced in 1814 ; and the
Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after.
Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at
The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and
Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought int o
use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within
a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac-
turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New- York. Their largest presses
for newspapers are capable of throwing off 10,000 sheets per hour, which is
so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders
from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams &- Co., of Boston, are perhaps the
best in the world for book printing. See article Printing.
PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur, " let it be printed," was much used
on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in
London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638.
And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast,
"The liberty of the press— it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not
we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig
dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required
to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France
and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but
again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it
was fully guaranteed by the constitution.
PRESSING TO DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of
Henry III. or of Edward L, and on the statute book until the latter part of
the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, i? the
following: — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered
two of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign-
ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James
I. 1605. — Stowe's Chron.
PRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles
Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John
Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to
fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the
field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce
his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish
ballad, called, from the doughty hero, " Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21,
1745.
PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender,
pai] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 489
OP Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac-
knowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro-
claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland,
Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead j in Aberdeenshire, from France,
to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had
promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed,
the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines),
Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765.
PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles,
born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June
1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk,
January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and
sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds
of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 80,0001. was offered for taking him,
he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es-
caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur-
al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His
brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Fngland, born
ISIarch 1725, died at Rome in August 1807.
PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the
head of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing
in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low
room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none
admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion
of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem-
bers were named the Rwnip, to whom nothing remained to complete their
wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith,
PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only.
In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty yeaj-s. Among
the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa-
mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and
the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar
privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but
that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or
high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular
sects.
PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for-
merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should
publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the
Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. —
Ashe.
PRIMOGENITURE, Right of, an usage brought down from the earliest times.
The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren,
and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by
the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It
came in with the feudal law, 3 William L, 1068.
PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention has
been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence,
Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to
attention, Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes
John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and
letters. Speculum Humance Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous
and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The
leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to-
21*
490
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[PRi
gether. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the
Tractatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal
types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was
commenced in 1444, and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schaeffer cast
the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete
PRINTING, 1462. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy.
Book of Psalms -prmieA -1 a. d. 1457
The Durandi Rationale^ first work
printed with cast metal types *? - 1459
[Printing was introduced into Oxford,
about this time.— Collier. But this
statement is discredited by Dibdin.]
A Livy printed. — Diifreanoy - 1 - 1460
The first Bible completed.— /c^ewl - 14G0
[Mentz taken and plundered, and the art
of printing, in the general ruin, is
spread to other towns] - - 1462
The types were uniformly Gothic, or
old German (whence our English, or
Black Letter) until - - - 11G5
Greek characters (quotations only) first
used, same year - - - - 1165
Cicero de Officiis printed (.Blair) - 1466
Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467
A Chronicle^ said to have been found
in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa-
lace (the fact disputed), bearmg the
date Oxford, anno • - - 1468
William Caxton, a mercer of London,
set up the first press at West minster* 1471
He printed Willyavi Caxton- s Recuyel
of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul
le Feure. — Phillips - - - 1471
His first pieces were, A Treatise on the
Game of Chess, and Tulhfs Offices
(see Afi/oir).— Dibdin - - - 1474
Msop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is
supposed to be the first book with its
leaves numbered - - - 14S4
Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a
Greek book printed (ap Aldi) - - 1476
He introduces the Italic - - - 1496
, 1482
1488
."009
The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - a. d.
Homer, infolio^ beautifully done at Flo-
rence, eclipsing all former printing,
by Demetrius
Printing used in Scotland -
The first edition of the whole Bible was,
strictly speaking, the Complutensian
Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see
Polyglot 1517
The Liturgy, the first book printed in
Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550
The first Newspaper printed in England
(see Newspapers) ... - 1588
First patent granted for printing - 1591
First printing-press improved by Wil-
liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601
First printing in America at Cambridge,
Mass., when the Freeman's Oath and
an Almanac were printed - - 1639
First Bible printed in Ireland was at
Belfast.— ^arf^T/'s Tour. - - - 1704
First types cast in England by Caslon. —
"' •'■ -1720
1735
■1779
Phillips.
Stereotype printing suggested by Wil-
liam Ged, of Edinburgh. — Nichols.
The present mode of stereotype inven-
ted by Mr. Golden, of New York
Stereotype printing was in use in Hol-
land in the last century, — Phillips.^
See Stereotype.
The printing-machine was first suggest-
ed by Nicholson .... 1790
The Stanhope press was in general use
in 1806
Machine printing (see Press) - -1811
Steam machinery (see Press) - • 1814
TITLES OP THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE.
The Gamr and Playeofthe Chesse. Tra
lated out of the Frenche and emvryn
rans-
\ of the Prcnche and emvrynted
by me William Caxton Fynysshidthe last
clay of Marche the yer of our Lord God a
thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij.
TULLY.
The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted
by me simple persone William Caxton m
to Englysshe as the play sir solace and re-
verence of men growyng in to old age the
xij day of August the yere of our lord
M.cccc.^jrjrjr/.— Herbert.
THE POLYCRONYCON.
The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges
and Dedes of many Tymes in eyghtBokes.
Imprinted by William Caxton after hav-
ing somewhat chaunged the rude and
olde Englysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer-
iayn Words which in these Days be ney-
ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the
second day of Juyll at Westmestre the
xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward
the fourth, and of the Jncarnacion of oure
Lord a Thousand four Hondred four
Score and tweyne [1482.]— Dibdin's Tvp.
Antiq,.
the chronicles.
The Cronicles of Englond Enpnted by me
Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre
by London the v day of Juyn the yere
of thincarnacion of our lord god
M CCCC.LXXX.
POLYCRONICON.
Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth dayt
of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne of
kinge Harry the seuenth and of the Jrn-
• To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry,
where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged b/
the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of the Chesse,"" tlo
first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it
was printed, but all agree that it wa.s within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh.
pr:]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
4di
PRINTING, continued.
carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv
Emprynted by Wynkyn Theworde at
Westmestre.
HILL OP PERFECTION.
The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the
instance of the reverend relygyous fader
• The. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or-
der of the charterouse Accompiyshe[d]
andjynysshe[d] att Westmynster the uiii
day ofjaneur the yere of our lord Thou-
sande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the xii y^re
ofkynge Henry the vii by trpe wynkyn de
woide.— Ames, Herbert, Dibdin.
ENGLAND.
7Vie Descrypcyon of Enelonde Walys Scot-
land and Ireland speaking of the Noblesse
and Wort hxjnesse of the same Fynnysshed
and enprynted in Flete strete in the syne
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde
the yere of our lord a m.ccccc and ij. men-
sis Mayiis [mense Mali].— Dibdin's Typ.
Ant.
the festival.
The Feslyvall or Sermons on sondays and
holidais taken out of the golden legend en-
prynted at london in Fletestrete at ye syne
of ye Sonne by wynkyn de wordia. In the
yere of our lordM.ccccc.viii. And^tded
the XI daye of May e. — Ames.
THE lord's prayer.
As printed by Caxton in 1483.
Father our that art in heavens, haUotoed be
thy name : thy kyngdome com,e to us ; thy
will be done in earth as is in heaven : oure
every days bred give us to day ; and for-
give us oure tresspasses, as we forgive
them that tresspass against us ; and lead
us not into temptation, but deliver us from
all evil sin, amen. — Lewis's Lifb 09
Caxton.
a placard.
As printed by William Caxton.
If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to
bye ony pies of two or thre comemoracios of
Salisbuii use* enpryntid after the forme
of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and
tridy correct, late him come to westmon-
ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale
[red pale] and he shall have them good
f/iere.— Dibdin's Typ. Antiq,.
Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis,
interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the
semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of
abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered
leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced
with the art of printing.
PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity,
and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many
hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in the
Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block.
See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic-
toria, 1839.
PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 in
England. See Abbeys and Monaderics. The priories of aliens w^ere first
seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between
England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on
the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace.
These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3
Henry V. 1414. — Rijmefs Fxdera.
PRISONERS OF WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when
spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less
continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead
of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French,
and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30,
1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence-
ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri-
soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000,
Sept. Vi^^.—tdem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the
French, &c.. in England to 47,600, in lS\\.~Idem. This was the greatest
• Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is sup
posed from the different color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foroign print
ers.—Wheatley.
492 THE world's progress. [pro
number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the
last war.
PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan-
thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held
its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by
the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management,
the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal,
on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits. —
Haydn. .In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object
was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active
promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for
the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems
ad(jpted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel-
phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from
Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady
— ^Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per-
son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a
higher name than the American Mrs. Fry.
PRIVY COLT^CIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted
by Alfred, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was
afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and
despatch, and Charles 11. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the
principal officers of state (councillors ex officio), and ten lords and five com-
moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made
capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was
examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711.
PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures
made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri-
buted by order of government: — Captain to have three-eighths, unless
under the direction of a flag-ofticer, who in that case is to have one of the
said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants,
&c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c.
one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth; ordinary and
able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths.
PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who,
having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until the
end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ;
they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of
a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison.
PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign-
able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in
1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills iff Exchange.
PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish
Church, Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by pope
Gregory XV. in" 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc-
ceeding pontiffs.
PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIIL a subsidy
of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid
the king in a war with France, 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro-
posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy
to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this
tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects ;
but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to give
PRUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 493
an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres-
pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was
pleased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves.
— Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount
in the last years of the late war. The assessments on real property, under
the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,423^.
PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred
writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa-
ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; /. e. of four greater, and twelve
lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter
are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze-
phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the
earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed
by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem {Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8)
executed by Titus, a. d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in
Scripture.
PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to
request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op-
position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to
support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with
the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested,
April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of
Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated
from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George,
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two
dukes of Lunenburg; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt;
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, TJlm, Con-
stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutkeranism, Calvinism, d^c.
PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100
men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fouri)ence, Henry
I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and
eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John,
1200. — Burto7i's Aimals. When wheat was at 65. per quarter, the farthing
loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole
grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat .was at Is. Qd. per quarter,
the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain
(the same as standard now) ninetj^-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat.
Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is.
per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Sbowe. The price of provisions fixed by
the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ;
a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from
Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299.
Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of
our money for a fat ox, if fed with com 3Z. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 6s. ; two
dozen of eggs, 3d. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common-
council above recited, 7 Edward 11. lSlS.~Bot. Pari. Wine, the best sold
for 20s. per tun, 10 Richard 11. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in
1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by
the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound,
and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1538. — An-
derson^s Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, for
one halfpenny, 2* Eliz. 1560. — Stowe' s Chronicle.
PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320
B. c. The "Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in-
494
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[PRU
habited the Riphsean mountains ; and from these the country was called
Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig-
nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The
Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights,
and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known
until about a. d. 1007.
St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach
Christianity, but is murdered by the
pagans - - - a. d. 1010
Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death
by dreadful ravages - - . * * •
Berlin built by a colony from the Nether-
lands, in the rei^n of Albert the Bear - 1163
The Teutonic knights, returning from
the holy wars, undertake the conquest
of Prussia, and the conversion of the
people . - - - . 1225
Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi-
tal of Prussia - - - - 1286
The Teutonic knights, by their barba-
rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It
is repeopled by German colonists in
the 13th century - - . • * •
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by
purchase from Sigismofid, emperor
of Germany, the margraviate of Bran-
denburg .... 1415
[This Frederick is the head of the pre-
sent reigning family.]
Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na-
tives against the oppression of the
Teutonic knights - - - 1446
Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master
of the Teutonic order, renounces the
Roman Catholic religion, embraces
Lutheranism, and is acknowledged
duke of East Prussia, to be held as a
fief of Poland - - - - 1525
University of Konigsberg founded by
duke Albert .... 1544
The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the
electorate of Brandenburg, and so
continues to this day - - - 1594
John Sigismund created elector of Bran-
denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608
The principality of Halberstadtandihe
bisnopric of Minden transferred to the
house of Brandenburg - -1648
Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia
as an independent state, under Frede-
rick William .... 1657
Order of Concord instituted by Christian
Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish
the part he had taken in restoring
peace to Europe - - - 1660
The foundation of the Prussian monar-
chy was established between the years
1640 and - - - - 1680
Frederic III., in an assembly of the
states, puts a crown upon his own
head, and upon the head of his con-
sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus-
sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701
Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702
Frederick I. seizes NeufchatelorNeun-
burgh, and Valencia, and purchases
the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707
which the Prussian monarchy is
made to rank among the first powers
in Europe - - - a. d, 1740
Breslau ceded to Prussia - - -1741
Silesiaj Glatz, «fec., ceded - - 1742
Frederick the Great visits England - 1744
General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians,
and a Russian army, march to Berlin.
The city laid under contribution ; and
pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000
crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and
foundries destroyed - - - 1760
Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786
The Prussians take possession of Ilano-
ver - - - Jan. 3P, 1806
Prussia jcms the allies of England
against France - - Oct. 6, 1'506
Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18o6
[Here followed the loss of almost every
corps in succession of the Prussian
army, the loss of Berlin, and of every
province of the monarchy except
Prussia proper.]
Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806
Peace of Ti\sh(ioltich see) • July 7, 1807
Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808
Prussia joins the allies - IVIarch 17, 1813
Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814
The king promised liberty of the press
March, 1847
Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists
urgent demands for liberal measures,
March 14, 1*17
Barricades nnd fights between troops
and students - - March 15, 1847
The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847
—issues decree demanding a federal
imion of Germany, and granting li-
berty of the press - "^ March 18, 1347
Another bloody collision, 274 killed
March 18, imi
New ministry formed - March 18, 18i7
The king grants general amnesty
March 20, 1847
Agitations general throughout Prussia
A free constitution granted, in a solemn
convocation, by the king - April 11, 1847
The duchy of Posen reorganized by the
king - - - March 26, 1848
Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848
Constitutional assembly of Prussia
meeta ■ - - May 22, 184?
The arsenal at Berlin captured by the
mob - - - June 16, 1848
The king prorogues the assembly at
Berlin, and appoints its meeting at
Brandenburg - - Nov, 9, 1818
The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the
order of the king to disband. Berlin
in a state of siege - Nov, 12, 18i8
The assembly dissolved, and a new con-
stitution promulgated • Dec. 6, 1848
Reign of Frederick the Great, during
margraves and electors of BRANDENBURG, ETC.
A. D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. I succession of time, passed into the
• * Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in | families of Sfaden, Ascanii, Bellen*
pur]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
495
PRUSSIA, conlinioed.
stadt, and that of Bavaria; till the
emperor Sigismond, with the consent
of the states of the empire, gave per-
petual investiture to
1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made
elector of Brandenburgh, 1417.
1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or
Ironside ; resigned,
1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil-
les, lie confirmed the deed made by
his predecessor, of mutual succession
with the fan)iJies of Saxony and
Hesse; resigned.
1476 John, .surnamed the Cicero of Germany,
his son.
1499 Joachim I., his son.
1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew.
1571 John George,
1598 Joachim Frederick.
1608 John Sigismund,
1619 George William.
1640 Frederick William the Great.
1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king
of Prussia.
KINGS OF PRUSSIA.
1701 Frederick I.
1713 Frederick William I.
1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Grs^t,
1786 Frederick William II.
1797 Frederick William III.
1840 Frederick William IV., June 7.
PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument,
A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was
about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32,600 ; and in 1790, the number in
Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000
public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The
number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820.
PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru-
ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple
of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in
a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com-
bination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1. — Phillips.
PULTOWA, Battle op. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to
take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarcli
would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had^ he
not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowsld, a
Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized.
This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to
the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before,
which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able
to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709.
PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in-
vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although
the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in
general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented^ by Otto
Guerigke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on
the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well
beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282.
PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against
Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it
lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be-
gan 218 B. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000
foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the
gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with
uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his
progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and
of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and
ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated
by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage.
PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell,
496 THE world's progress. f PYT
where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the
fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of
purgatory was known about a. d. 250; and was introduced into the Roman
church in 593. — Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century.—
Dupin.
PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to
the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the
Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the
birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was
to go to the temple and offer a Iamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among
the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of
the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she
presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser-
gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called
Candlemas-day.
PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza-
beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of
living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were
members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon
account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those tini^s se-
verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson.
PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son-
nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu-
ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found
but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and
diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag-
nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high
mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced,
it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the
seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen-
dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of
the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed
of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu-
man labor has not been found on the earth.
" Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids,
" Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Youno.
PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord
Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The
latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After VaQ
battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour-
dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which
his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of
more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from
July 25 to August 2.
PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain ;
by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her
rights to Alsace; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c.,
and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659.
PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head
of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or
transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis-
ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been
produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the
world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported
that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter by
QUA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497
the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the
world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im-
prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at
this day, 639 b. c.
PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple
of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received
opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had
obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ;
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon,
or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio
tyons, B. c. 1263. — Ariindelian Marbles.
Q.
QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a
French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a
shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor
added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addison. Quacks
sprung np with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly
England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta-
blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in
1783 et scq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss
Cashin, whose physician, St, John Long, was afterwards tried for man-
slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250^., Oct.
30, 1830.
QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle.
The solar quadrant w^as introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono-
nomers under the Caliphs, in a.d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches
radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea-
suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See
Navigation.
QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great
Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the
accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple
Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the
reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of
the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718.
QU^.STOR, in Roman antiquity, w-as an olficer who had the management of
the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship w^as the first oflSce
any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the
senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was
greatly increased.
QUAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the
truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic
of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear
towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the
name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and
those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect-
able sect, excelling in morals, prudence, and industry, was commenced in
England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num-
ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith,
Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The iliee and thou used by the
* The Quakers early suflered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where
the first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and their
498 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ QUE
Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instruc-
tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was
enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re-
quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696.
QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all
merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in
the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad-
mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of
Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other
nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qun-
rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged
most safe,
QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, between the British and allied army under the
duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the
French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo,
In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815.
QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English,
with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged
by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by thum,
after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of
victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham.
Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was
slain, December's!, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The
public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in
1816 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000^. Awful fire, 1650
houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28,
1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June
28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846,
QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was
Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the
city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most
magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with
that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name of queen,
that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of
king. See note to article Hungary.
QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng-
land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate
Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi-
nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her
funeral, Aug. 14.
QUEENS OF ENGLAND, There have been, since the conquest, besides the
present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own
right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady
Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirt}'-
four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who
cars cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament tha;
2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them-
pelves at this time, by name, to sovernment, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger
(from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out oi 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an
order of council, 16M. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em-
bargo was laid on West India ^hips, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service
But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol-
diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured
by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the pl^ue in that
year. See Plague. Of the 120 few reached America.
que]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
499
died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty-five ac-
tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen.
The following list includes all these royal personages : —
Of William I.
Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of
Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and
died 1084.
William II.
This sovereign died unmarried.
Of Henry I.
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of
Scotland; she was married November 11,
1100; and died May 1, 1119.
Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou-
vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129.
Survived the king.
Maude oi Matilda.
Dc nghter of Henry I.^ and rightful heir to
the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth-
ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry
v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125.
She married, secondly. Geotfrey Plantagenet,
earl of Anjou, 1130. *Was set aside from the
English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed
in England and 'claimed the crown, 1139.
Crowned, but was soon after defeated at
Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with
Stephen, which secured the succession to
her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167.
Of Stephen.
Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of
Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and
died May 3, 1151.
Of Henry II.
Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis
VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne
and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ;
and died 1204.
[The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of
this prince. See article Rosamond.
Oi Richard I.
Berengera, daughter of the king of Na-
varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur-
vived the king.
Of John.
Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ;
she was married in 1189. Divorced.
Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou-
leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of
the count de la Marche ; married to John in
1200. Survived the king, on whose death
she was remarried to the count de la Marche.
Of IlENftY III.
Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro-
vence ; she was married January 14, 1236.
Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo-
nastery, whitlier she had retired.
Of Edward I.
Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in
1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot-
land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296.
Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she
was married September 12, 1299. Survived
the king.
Of Edward IL
Isabella, daughter of the king of France ;
she was married in. 1308. On the death, by
the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was
confined for the rest of her life in her own
house at Risings, near London.— 'Hume.
Of EDViTARD m.
Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland
and Hamault ; she was married January 24,
1328 ; and died August 16, 1369.
Of Richard IL
Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi
Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married
in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395.
Isabella, daughter of Charles Vl.of France;
she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On themui-
der of her husband she returned to her fa-
ther.
Of Henry IV.
Mary, daughter of the earl of Hf eford ;
she died, before Henry obtained the crown,
in 1394.
Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of
Bretagne; she was married in 1403. Sur-
vived the king, and died in 1437.
Of Henry V.
Catherine, daughter of the king of France >
she was married May 30, 1420. She outliv-
ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor,
grandfather of Henry VII.
Of Henry VL
Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ;
she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv-
ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and
died in 1482.
Of Edward IV.
Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir
Richard Woodeville, ana widow of sir John
Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1.
1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection
of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in
confinement.
Edward V.
Thi.'s prince perished in the Tower, in
the 13tli year of his age ; and died unma *-
ried.
Of Richard III.
Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick,
and widow of Edward, prince of Wales!
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is
supposed to have been poisoned by Richard
(having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to
make way for his intended marriage with
the princess Elizabeth of York.
Of Henry VII.
Elizabeth of York, princess of England,
daughter of Edward IV, ; she was married
January 18, 1486 ; and died February 11
500
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[QUI
QUEENS, contimied.
Of Henry VHI.
Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She
was married June 3, 1509 ; was the mother
of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after-
wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died
January 6, 1536.
Anna Boleyn, daugnter of sir Thomas Bo-
leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She
was privately married, before Catherine was
divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of
queen Elizabeth : was beheaded at the Tow-
er, May 19, 1536.
Jane Seymour^ daughter of sir John Sey-
mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn.
She was married May 20, 1536, the day after
Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed-
ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth,
Oct. 13, 1537.
Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke
of Cleves. She was married January 6,
1540; was divorced July 10, 1540; and died
in 1557.
Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of
Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ;
and was beheaded on Tower hill February
12, 1542.
Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas
Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer.
She was married July 12, 1543. Survived
the king, after whose death .''he married sir
Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and
died September 5, 1518.
Edward VI.
This princBj who ascended the throne in his
tenth year, reigned six years and five months,
and died unmarried.
Lady Jane Grey.
Daughter of the dukeof Sutfolk, and wife
of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen
on the death of Edward. In ten days after-
wards returned to private life ; was tried
Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12,
1554, when but seventeen years of age.
Mary.
Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended
the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II.
of Spain, July 2.5, 1554: and died Novem-
ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in
1598.
Elizabeth.
Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to
the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years,
4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried.
Of James I.
Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of
Frederick II. ; she was married August 20,
1689; and died March 1619.
Of Charles I.
Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV.
king of France : she was married June 13,
1626. Survived the unfortunate king ; and
died in France, August 10, 1669.
Of Charles IL
Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughter
of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. ; she
was married May 21, 1662. Survived the
king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec.
21, 1705.
Of James II.
Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,
earl of Clarendon ; slie was married in Sep.
tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend-
ed the throne, in 1671.
Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh-
ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar-
ried November 21, 1673. At the revolutioii
in 1688, she retired with James to France ;
and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur-
vived her consort seventeen yeju^-s.
William and Mary.
Mary, the princess of Orange, daughtei >^
James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16< 7 ;
ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De-
cember 28, 1694.
Anne.
Daughter of James 11. She married G eorge
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed-
ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen
children, all 5f whom died young ; lost her
husband, October 28, 1708 : and died August
1, 1714.
Of George I.
Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of
Zell. She died a few weeks previously to
the accession of George to the crown, June
8, 1714.
Of George II.
Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran-
denburgh- Anspach ; married in 1704: and
died November 20, 1737.
Of George III.
Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of
Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married September
8, 1701 ; and died November 17, 1818,
Of George IV.
Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the
duke of Brunswick ; she was married April
8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin-
cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. See
article Queen Caroline.
Of William IV.
Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline,
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she
was married July 11, 1818; and survived the
king.
Victoria.
Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen,
daughter of the duke of Kent ; born^May 24,
1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 ;
crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin
prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Feb-
ruary 10, 1^0.
QUEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri-
HAC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 501
ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the
Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the
same day.
QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It
is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight
of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil-
ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the
chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at U^ria in Carniola in (Ger-
many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in
1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It
was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by
Mr. Walker, in 1787.
QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard,
whose work, the Spiritual Guide, Avas the foundation of the sect of Quietists
in France. His principal tenet was, that the purity of religion coi^isted in
an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and
the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of
absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when
arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then
imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma-
dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions
and prophecies, but released through the interest of Pension, the celebrated
archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she
occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect
sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet.
QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a, d. 553 ; but some
say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty
from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling,
ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillips.
QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {which see) celebrated as having been the
scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and
Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls
were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost
overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797.
R.
RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chari-
ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen,
who Avrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi-
zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south,
and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of
Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket,
although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them,
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas.
RACKS. This erigine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes-
sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe.
The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in-
strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI.,
erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now
Keen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of
Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punivsh-
ment proposed in tlie privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as
being: contra rv to tlie laws, 1628. Si!o Ravillac.
502 THE world's progress. [ RAl
RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad-
cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40,000Z. to the Uni-
versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone of
the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in
1749, and was opened April 13, same year.
R ADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con-
gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers,
Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro-
cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian
regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798.
RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but on
rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was hrought
among them hy Danaus of Egypt, when he fied from his brother Rameses,
1485 B. c. — Heylin.
RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about New-
castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of
wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the
pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " The
manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the
river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll-
ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the
coal-merchants," — Life of Lord- Keeper North. They were made of iron, av'.
Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at
Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament
(with the exception of a few undertaken fey canal companies as small
branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames
at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first
great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester
railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830.
KXTENT OF RAILWAYS
OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1&47.
Miles. !
Miles.
Great Britain and Ireland
- 3,375
Italy ....
' 115
United States (in 1849, 6,117)
- - 3,800
Denmark -
- 106
Germany (in 1&49, 3,100) -
- 1,570
Cuba ...
- 800
Holland -
- - 200
Russia
. 52
Belgium
. 1,095
British Colonies
-1,000
France
- - 2,200
East India - - . .
- 500
Total length of railways opened throughout the world :— in 1847, 21,761 miles.
In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles
per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ;
in 1834. the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the
North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During
the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been
diminished tive-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for
one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres-
ponding ratio. — Tuck's liaUimys, 1847.
RAILROADS in tiik UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines complet-
ed reached an aggregate of
In New England 1,219 miles.
In New York 840 do.
In other parts of the United St'ites 4,058 do.
Total .... 6,117 do.
JSee Amfiricnn Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.^
RAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503
A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a
portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The
first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convey
granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad,
opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor-
cester, July 6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal-
timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10,
1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb.
12, 1840.
IL'ULROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as
1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles,
commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident
on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ-
ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and
Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July
8, 1846.
RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in
Belgium, opened May 3, 1836.
RAMILIES, Batti.r of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough
and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on
Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious
victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import-
ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which
had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his
daughters.
RATISBON, Peach of, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger-
many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession,
October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under
the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806.
RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest
of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions
of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F.
Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in
the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers,
that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western
deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad-
vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, and
in some parts of France are still unknown.
RAVENNA, Battle of, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XIL^ and the Spanish and papal
armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment
of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April
11, 1512.
RAVILLAC'S MURDER of HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death of Ravil-
lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king. May
14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations.
He was carried to the Gr^ve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the
shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened
the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire.
Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot
pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil pitch, and rosin were
poured. His body was so robust that lie eruiured this exquisite pain; and
ins strength resisted that of the fanv horses by which his limbs wer« to be
604 THE world's progress. [ RET
pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters,
and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the
streets.
REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation
for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for
a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus-
sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re-
form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl
Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by
lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords
by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority. May 7.
New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers
(106 to 22) June 4, 1832.
REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church
may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinu», bishop of Aqui-
leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal
reformers were Wickliffe, Hiiss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri,
Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The
eras of the Reformation are as follows : —
In Sweden (^Petri) - - - a. d. 1530
In England {Henry VIII.) • - - 1534
In Ireland {Browne) .... 1535
In England, completed (Cranmer, 1 u-
cer, Pagius, Sfc.) ... - [547
In Scotland (Knox) 1560
In the Netherlands .... 1562
In England ( TF/cA:/(^e) - - a. d. 1360
In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405
In Germany {Luther) ■ ... 1517
In Switzerland (Zmn^Znts) - • -1519
In Denmark 1521
In France ( CoZrtw) 1529
Protestants first so called - - - 1529
The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession
to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first
prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Jjiithei\
Protestants, (^"C.
RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to
God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and
applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false
gods among the lieathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes
and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits
being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — PliiUips. Religious
ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in-
troduced by Enos, 2832 b.c. — Lenglct. See the different sects as described
throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced
with the Reformation {whi-ch sec), 1531. The Six Articles of Religion, for
the non-observance of whicli many Piotestants as well as Catholics suffered
death, passed 1539. l*iie Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552;
they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv-
ed the sanction of parliament in 1571.
REPEAL OF THE UNION op Grkat Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa-
tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in
1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in
1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli-
berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in
various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and
called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf on Oct. 8,
was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were
brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844.
RETREAT of the GREEKS. J^^emorable retreat of 10 000 Greeks who had
^ioined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta-
xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the
retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under
rev]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
505
continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled
to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of moun-
tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions.
This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned
home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in
215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might
now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher
who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which
he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 b. c. — Vossius.
REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list
and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi-
nary, ^61,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles
II. Raised to .£6,000.000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated,
which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary,
1690. — Salinoii's Chron. Hist..
GENERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONaUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR.
William tlie Conqueror - - i:400,000
William Rufus .... 350,000
Henry I. .... r^,000
Stephen 250,000
Henry II.
Richard I. -
John
Henry III. -
Edward I.
Edward II.
Edward IH.
Richard II.
Henry IV.
Henry V.
Henry VI.
Edward IV.
Edward V.
Richard III.
Henry VII.
200,000
150,000
100,000
80,000
150,900
100.000
154,'000
130,000
100,000
76,643
64,976
100,000
130,000
400,000
Henry Vm.
Edward VI. .
Mary ....
Elizabeth
James I. - . . .
Charles I.
Commonwealth
Charles II.
James II. -
William III. -
Anne (at the Union) -
George I. ...
George II. ...
George III., 1788 -
Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom
George IV., 1825, ditto -
William IV., 1830, ditto -
Ditto, 1835, ditto -
Victoria, 1845, ditto -
jC 800,000
400,000
450,000
500,000
. 600,000
895,819
1,517,247
1,800,000
2,001,855
3,892,205
5,691,803
6,762,643
8,522,540
15,572.971
65.599,570
62,871,300
55,431,317
50,494,732
51,067,856
REVENUE OF THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and
sales of public lauds. The aggregate revenue was, in
$16,993,858
28,504,519
. 29,769.134
29,499,247
. 26,:346,79C
. 35,436,750
$4,399,473
- 5,926,216
10,624;997
- 13,520,312
9,299,737
- 15,41L634
16,779,331
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES.
1790
1795
1800
1805
1810
1815
1820
1825
1830
1835
ia'^6
18:37
1838
1839
$21,342,906
24,280,888
3i; 163,635
48,288,219
18,032,846
19,372,984
30,399,043
The first publication of the character of a re-
1840
1844
1&45
1846
1847
1848
vieio was the ''Journal des Savants" established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis
de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri-
tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De
Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la
Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society of
learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from
1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued; but in
1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con-
tributors, as De Sacy, Langlds, R^musat, Riot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other
literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few
years.
The Gentleman'' s Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly
Review, in 1749, were the first works of the kind published in London, that
obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals
which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated
by Nichols; viz. "Weekly Memorials, oran Account of Books lately set forth,"
606 THE world's progress. [rev
1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722 ; " New Memoirs of
Literature," 6 vols., 1726 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters,"
18 vols., 1728 to 1736 ; '' Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732.
The Gentleman's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the
first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate,
David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in
1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more
than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author
of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole
editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession ;
and the appellation assumed a:ad retained by the conductor of the work
from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag-
azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi-
tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of
this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is
spoken, — that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets wliich
literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun
January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 volurjes
The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was
established in 1749, by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it
54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was
continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series,
from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in
1825, 108 volumes.
The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil-
ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to
1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished
upwards of 2,620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since.
First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791
to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24
volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series
was begun in 1815.
The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were
the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom died
in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the
work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first pubhshed in
monthly numbers ; but from 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of
" The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work,
called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem-
bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High
Church principles.
The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri-
odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range
and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced-
ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of
Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith
(the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its
principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished
names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham,
and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time,
upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some-
what less than 9000.
The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as
1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It
may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain-
REV ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 50',
ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles.
It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by
H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num-
bered sir Walter Scott, Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and
learned contributors, .some of whom are understood to have been connected
with the government.
The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805.
It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi-
ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had
many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert
Hall, and John Foster, — Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, from
1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive,
30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829.
The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members
of the established church, was commenced in 1802, and maintains what are
commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri-
butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel
Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have b€\.n republished
in this country.
Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817.
It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics.
The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000.
The Westminster Review, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben-
tham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis-
lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill,
and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1846.
The Foreign Quarterly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted io
foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united
to the Westmiiister Review. — Amer. Almaiiac, &-c.
REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng-
land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James
II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres-
sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5,
1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was
consummated by William HI. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James)
being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689.
REVOLUTIONS, Remarkablk in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de-
stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great,
536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per-
sian, on Ihe defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331
B, c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or
Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded
by Constantino the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306.
The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802.
This empire underwent a new revolution, and .became the German empire
under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273,
from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern
empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the
Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome,
France, Portugal, &c.
REVOLUTIONS, "the most celebrated i.v modern history. In Portugal, a. d.
1640. In England, 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and' 1830. In Russia, 1730
and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. Fn America, 1775. In France. 1789,
1830, and 1848. In Holland, 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome. 1798. In
the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil. 1H31. In R>ime.
508
THE WORLB^S PROGRESS.
[rio
Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only
— the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec-
tiyely.
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame-
rican Revolution A'^arious attempts were made to establish religious and lite-
rary journals in several places in this country, particularly Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or
had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and
religious reviews and magazines :
F'ounded. new york.
BOSTON.
American Monthly Ma-
gazine, (the first) es-
tablished by Jeremy
Gridley, continued 3
years, about - - 1745
Massachusetts Maga-
zine, (lasted to 1795) 17Si
Monthly Anthology, Prf.
Ticknor, A. H. Eve-
rett, Buckminster, &c.
(to 1811) - - - 1803
General Repertory and
Review, (let Amer.
quarterly,') edited at
Cambridge by Andrews
Norton - - 1812-13
North American Re-
view, commenced by
W.Tudor* - -1815
N. Y. Magazine and
Literary Repository,
(to 1792) - - 1787
Literary Review, R. C.
Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1822
Atlantic Mag., Sands,
afterwards New York
Monthly Review, - 1824
Knickerbocker Mag., C.
F. Hoffman, succeeded
by Flint, and now L.
G. Clark - - 1832
Democratic Review (un-
til 1841 at Washington) 1837
American Monthly Ma-
gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838)
Herbert,Hoffman,Ben-
jamin - - - 1835
iV. Y. Review, (quar-
tei'ly) J. G. Cogswell,
(to 1842) - - 1837
American Review, G.
H. Colton - - 1844
HunVs Merchant's Ma-
gazine - • . 1839
NEW .lAVEN.
Christian Observer - 182-
Amcrican Journal oj
Science Sr Arts, (Silli-
man's) quarterly - 1818
New Englander, Theol.
(quarterly) - - 1843
Church Review (quar-
terly) - . . 1848
Christian Examiner,
^quarterly) Channing,
Dewey, Ware, «Scc. - 1818
American Biblic. Repo-
sitoiy, founded by E.
Robmson, D.D., at An-
dover - - - 1831
Christian Review,(Ba.p-
tist) quarterly - - 1835
Boston Quarterly i?e-
t>tet/>, (Brownson) - 1837
New England Maga-
zine, Buckingham - 1833
American Quarterly Re-
gister, Edwards - 18 —
The Vial, (quarterly)
Emerson, to 1843 - 1841
Massachusetts Quarter-
ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846
RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt
in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy,
the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine.
The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably,
becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from
paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city
was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814!
RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of
Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe LengUt. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at
Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is
to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to
be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in
Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor.
PHILADELPHIA.
Aitkin's Pennsylvania
Magazine was the
most popular before
the Revolution ; Thos.
Pame and Francis
Ilopkinson, editors
Amer. Museum, pub. by
Matthew Carey, (to
1792) - - - 1787
Literary Magazine and
American Register, C.
Brockden Brown, (to
1810) - - -1806
Portfolio, pub. monthly
from 1809 by Jos, Den-
nie; edited by Nicho-
las Middle,! 812-16, and
1816-21 by ,T. E. Hall - 1801
Analectic Mag.
Dig
Thomas, (to 1820) * - 1813
Amer. Quar. Review,
Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 182.7
Graham\f Magazine -
Lady-s Book, Mrs. Hale
Slryker's American Re-
gister, (quarterly) - 1847
Southern Quarterly Re-
view, at Charleston,
(to 1833, recommenced
1842) - - -1828
Southern Lit. Messen-
ger, at Richmond, by
T. W. White - - 1834
Biblical Repertory and
Theological Review,
Princeton, N. J. - 18—
• SubsMuent editors :—W. Phillips, 1817; E, T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks, 1817; Edward
•".terett, 1819; Jared Sparks, 1823 ; A. H. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835 ; F. Bowen, 1842.
ROM ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
50S
RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of the Rhine.
RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Roger Williams
and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution,
and founded the town of Providence, in 1686. Williams obtained a patent
from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode
Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663,
which has continued in force till recently, imchanged by the Revolution.
Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in
June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti-
tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United
States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Pop-
ulation in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130.
RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho-
dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar-
itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not
completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b. c. Its famous Colossus
(which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroyed
by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. ^12— Priestley.
RIALTO, AT Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in
his "Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single
arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near
the middle, where it is the narrowest: this celebrated arch is ninety feet
wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high.
RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng-
land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See BlU of
Rights.
RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States:
At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos-
ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812.
At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili-
tary, Sept. 24, 1831.
At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several
killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835.
At New York, '-abolition riots," caused by
discussions on slavery, and supposed in-
tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal-
gamation" between whites and blacks,
July 10-12, 1834.
At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary
or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834.
At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots,
4d houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834.
At Uticaj Boston, &c., same cause, 1835-6.
At Cincmnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur-
ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July
30,1836.
At New York, caused by the high price o\
flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des-
troyed, Feb. 13, 1837.
At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla-
very newspaper destroyed, and he was
killed, Nov. 7, ia37.
At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti-
slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva-
nia Hall, (kc, May 17, 1838.
In the Pennsylvania legislature, two different,
legislatures organized, the Senate expelled
from their Chamber by a mob. Militia
called out and the contest settled after 4
days, Dec. 8, 1838.
At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against
abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841.
Disgraceful afl^ray in Pennsylvania legisla-
ture ; a member stabbed "by another, April
8, 1843.
Another in House of Representatives of U.
S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver,
Jan. 25, 1844.
Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame-
ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3
churches burned, fourteen persons killed,
forty wounded ; finally put down by the
military, May 6-8, 1844.
The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and
wounded by the military: 5000 troops call-
ed out, July 7,1844.
Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer
County, N. Y. Commenced August 21,
1844 : renewed in December.
Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor
Wright to be in a state of insurrection.
Collection of rents being resisted by rioters
disguised as Indians, and an under sherifl;
murdered, Aug. 27, 1845.
Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March
25, 1847.
Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y.
against Mr. Macpeady, the English actor
21 killed ; May 10, 1849.
Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis
sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the
Senate of the U, S., the first gross insult to
that assembly, May, 1850.
RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, <Sdc. ; as-
510 THE world's progress. I ROM
sembled at Chicago, 111., July 6, 1817. House of Representatives votes
(112 to 63) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern-
ment to promote such improvements, July 1848.
ROBESPIERRE'S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the
populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of
the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of
eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra-
tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri-
bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded througli
the hall ; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked
minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and
suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived.
ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who
infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made
excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians
assert tx.at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon,
who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession.
Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu-
merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247,
when he died..~Stowe's Chron.
ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were
invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were
first usod at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated
in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See
article Boulogne Flotilla.
ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of
its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was
alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the
rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of
Christianity by Constantino, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the
papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of
Universal Bishop. See Pofe. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste-
phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756.
The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform-
ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed
doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the
earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under
the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Bcdbi,
ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in
1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor
there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded
from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and
estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament
in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent,
1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation
Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his
seat under the act.
ROMANCES. *' Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic
flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life."—
Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author
of Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence
styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and
particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.- -
ffuet de Origine Fahul. Roman,
ROS]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
511
ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the
most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind.
Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele-
brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of
the Julian period, 8251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the
birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of
the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on
the summit of Mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give his followers the
appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard
a3 a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From
such an assemblage a numerous body was .soon collected, and before the
death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the
Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and
Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages.
to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of near!} t^ie
whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting
for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it.
The three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, having
been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com-
bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. —
Livy. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63.
<fec. The pope refuses ; the people
attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the
pope yields, and grants a liberal mi-
nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1&18
The pope, after being a prisoner in his
Salace for seven days, escapes from
orne to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis-
guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848
Roman chambers dissolved, and a con-
stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1848
The Roman republic proclaimed ; Maz-
zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849
French armament against the republic
reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1819
French repulsed under the walls of
Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849
Rome surrenders after an attack of 29
days, and false promises on the part
of the French - - July 2, 1849
Rome entered by the French under Ou-
dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi
and Kis force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849
Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849
Oudinot surrenders the government
into the hands of three commissioners
of the pope, who begin the work of
reaction" - -. - Aug. 3, 1849
Letter of the French president, dictat-
ing the basis of the restoration of the
pope's temporal power, viz. : general
amnesty, secularization of the admi-
nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe-
ral government - Aug. 18, 1849
Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850
Foundation of the city commenced by
Romulus - - - B.C.
Odoacer, chief q{ the Ileruli, enters
Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the
title of king of Italy, which ends the
Western empire - - a. d.
Rome is recovered for Justinian, by
BelisarJus . . . .
Retaken by the Goths
Narses, Justinian's general, again re-
cofiquers Rome
Papal power established -
Rome revolts from the Greek emperors,
and becomes free
Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem-
poral dominion of Rome
Cnarlemagne acknowledged as emperor
of the West
- 800
« « }fr « • ;r:
Ricnzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at
Rome ..... 1347
[The popes continued in possession of
the city and territories. See article
Popes and Italy.]
The recent struggles of Rome for free-
dom commenced in - - . 1848
Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848
Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis-
ter, assassinated at the senate-house.
The populace march to the Quirinal,
and present their demands to the
pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con-
stituent assembly, a new ministry,
ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au-
gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary
and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as
being said in 1093.
ROSES, The WnrfE and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated
England, were v ^rried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose^
and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan-
512 TfilE WORLDS PUOGRESS. [ RCTM
caster chose the red roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York
were denominated from the whUe. These wars originated with the descend-
ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri-
chard 11. , who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king,
by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heir
to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward
III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, \ki^ third
son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira-
cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de-
scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom
with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parf cularly in
the reigns of Henry VJ. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22,
1465. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII.
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486
ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger-
many in 1302, and again early in the 17th century. They swore fidelity,
promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglypliically ; and affirmed that the an-
cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno-
sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves.
ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng-
land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava-
litrs, and the friends of the imrliament were called Round-heads. This
latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves
putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their
hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers.
ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron-
age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was
appointed its first president, — Leigh.
ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of
persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He-
berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions
of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the
metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus,
and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object.
ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un-
der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as
" The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffiising the knowledge, and
facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and
improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and
experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life.
The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec-
tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on this
establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833.
ROYAL SOCIEIT. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon.
Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of
divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in the
apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society
continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body
politic and corporate, by the appellation of the "President, Council and
Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge."
RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the
civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block-
aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the
Presbyterian party, whom he confined ; above 160 more were excluded ;
and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 00, were
RUS]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
513
permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was
called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump,
IQ'^^.— Goldsmith.
RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of thi?
vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son
of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion
from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin-
guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap-
pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians.
Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au-
thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian
king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos-
cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in
subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In
the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered
Siberia.
The foundation of the present monarchy
laid A. D. 1474
Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in-
to the East, 1509 to .... 1534
Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar,
signifying great king, and drives the
Tartars clear out of his dominions,
1534 to 1550
The navigation from England first dis-
covered by Robert Chancellor - - ISo-i
The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay
30,000 of the people - - - -1571
The Novogorodians having intrigued
with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief
inhabitants to be hewn into small pie-
ces before his eyes - - •. . 1531
The race of llurick, who had governed
Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598
The imposition practised by Demetrius
See Impostors. 1606
The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their
own king, Sigismund II., upon the
throne of Russia .... 1610
Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of
Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613
Revolt from Polish tyranny - - - 1613
Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617
Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682
He visited England, and worked in the
dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697
Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex-
ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698
The Russians begin their new year
from January 1 - - - 1700
Peter buiUls St. Petersburg - - 1703
Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given
to Anne of Courland - - - 1730
Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns,
in prejudice of Ivan VI., an inlant,
who is imprisoned for life - • 1741
Peter III. dethroned and murdered; suc-
ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762
The young prince, the rightful heir, till
now immured, put to death a. n. 1763
The dismemberment of Poland com-
menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177/
This perfidious robbery completed - 1795
Catherine gives her subjects a new code
of laws ; abolishes torture in punish-
ing criminals ; and dies - - 179G
Murder of the emperor Paul, who is
found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801
Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz,
by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805
Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814
The grand-duke Constantino renounces
the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822
The emperor Nicholas is crowned at
Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826
Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1826
Nicholas invested with the order of the
Garter - - - July 9, 1827
Peace concluded between Russia and
the Persians - - Feb* 22, 1828
War between Russia and Ihe Ottoman
Porte declared - - April 26, 1828
[For the disastrous consequences to
Turkey of this war, see Turkey and
Battles.]
The war for the independence of Poland,
against Russia - - Nov. 29, 1830
This war closed with the capture of
Warsaw, and the total overtnrow of
the Poles, See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831
[For the events of this last war, see ar-
ticle Poland.]
Cracow, which had been erected into a
republic, and its independence gua-
ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in
1815, is occupied by a Russian and
Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836
Failure of the Russian expedition a-
gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1&40
Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15, 1810
I. 1461 .Tohnin.
1504 Demetrius; murdered.
1504 Basil V.
1534 John IV.
1584 Theodore I.
1598 Bovise Godounove.
1605 Theodore If.
1605 Demetrius II. , assassinated,
THE CZAKS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA.
1606 Chousky.
1616 Michael Fedorowitz.
1645 Alexis.
1676 Theodore III.
1682 Peter I., the Great.
1725 Catherine I.
1727 Peter II.
1730 Anne, a nun.
22*
514 THE world's progress. [ S4C
RUSSIA, Lontinued.
1740 John V. : murdered, July 17, 1762.
1741 Elizabeth.
1762 Peter III, ; deposed, and died soon af-
terwards.
1762 Catherine II.
1796 Paul I,; murdered, Feb. 25, 1901.
1801 Alexander,
1825 Nicholas, December 1.
RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy to
assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James
11.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket.
This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New-
market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight
days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was discov-
ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a
false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683.
RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Spix.in, and Holland,
signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697.
S.
SABBATH, The, Ordained by the Almighty, The Jews observed the seventh
day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon-
dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer-
sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be
kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at
break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, x. d. 960, Act of parliament levying one
shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606.
Act restraining amusements, Charles 1,, 1626-, Act restraining the perform-
ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours,
meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of
five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677.
SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts
of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo-
dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not
a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath
was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently
that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the
Jews, 1549.
SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year,
during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every
forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates,
&c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families,
&c. — Josephus.
SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away
their daughters by force for wiveS; having made and invited them to some
public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to
revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in belialf
of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be-
tween them, 750 b. c.
SACRED "WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b, c.
The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans,
356 B, c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all
the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutarch.
SACRIFICE. The first rehgious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con-
sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c, — Josephus; Usher.
Sacrifices to the gods were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of
ST. V ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. $15
Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated
with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and
other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri-
fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 33.
SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups,
which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in
the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in a. d. 304. They
were known in England ahout the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in
use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En-
glish ladies. — Stowe.
SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one
Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine,
taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul
was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead.
As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the ^ma-
ritans, excepting tliat they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This
sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon.
SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac-
cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im-
proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in
passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be
capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig-
nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are
authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts ^ for 1817, and in
Thomson'' s Annals of Philosophy, same year.
SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now
Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after
exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the
ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them-
selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became
master of a pile of ashes and of Sead.
ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or
America b}^ the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called
Guanaharai, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for
his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of
discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492.
ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel-
lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most
heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins,
was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31,
1813.
ST. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub-
lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by
Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe-
rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of
Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at
Rome.
ST. VINCENT, Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets off the
Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St.
Vincent), who took four line-of- battle ships, and considerably damaged th«
rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797.
616 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ SAN
SALAMANCA, Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord
Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmonfc, fought July 22,
1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington was
victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in
killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy
was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11
pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed
to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar-
shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An
immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500
more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores.
SALAMTS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea-
fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only
380 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, which consisted of ^000 sail. After
this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius,
with 300, OCK) men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re-
treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont,
now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest.
SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit-
ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati-
fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French
monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to
the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual
to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but
this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring
the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it.
SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from
salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near
Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been
lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered
about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine
salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670.
SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They
were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and
were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be-
tween the people of Judea and Samaria; so that no intercourse took place
between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re-
I)roach. and as if it were a curse. — Lemyi-iere.
SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one
entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety
of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre-
cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons.
St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West-
minster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc-
tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were
privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup-
pressed in 1696.
SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At
first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot
fVom the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of
cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest
materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings,
princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn
by women, as a*p[)ears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where,
8ar] dictionary of dates. 517
among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of
which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry
their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See
Shoes.
S ANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They
were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na-
tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard
of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna-
vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779.
Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives,
eflected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of
Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds
him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in Eng-
land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established
by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000
pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit-
Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission-
aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jtdd, an Ame-
rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2630 tons, belong-
ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling
station. See Owhyhee.
SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev-
enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this sehate from
Numbers 'kX. 1%. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, JbM
xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon
at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807.
SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity-
lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for lier poetry, her beauty, and her
amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth
of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid
her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c.
SARACENS, A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their
language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ;
and within 40 years after his death, in a. d, 631, they conquered a great part
of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the
empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258.'
— Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants
of those who subdued Spain are called Moors.
SARAGOSSA. Anciently Ca3sarea Augusta ; whence, by corruption, its name.
Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin,
while yet living, appeared to St, James, who was preaching the gospel, and
left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little
Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il-
luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of
the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre, Saragossa taken by
the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re-
nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809.
SARATOGA, Burgoynk's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman-
der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans in
the war of independence (Oct, 7). being surrounded, surrendered to the
American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arras, October 17,
1777.
SARDANAPALUS, The last king of Assyria, See Assyria. One of the most
518
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
fSAl
infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to
his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into
their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused
a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon
it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel,
and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart-
ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames.
This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches
thus destroyed were worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold^ and ten
TIMES as many talents of silver !!! about 1,400,000,000/. sterling. — Atheiiceus.
SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to
have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls
(when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, «fcc.,) from
whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the
Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy,
from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has
been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi-
nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v, Iiicli
various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin.
Subjugated by the Romans
B.C. 231
Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728
Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115
The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese,
who are, however, too weak to expel
the Saracens 1132
Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes
master of SanJinia - - - - 1324
Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng-
lish naval forces .... 1708
Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717
They again lose possession • - • 1719
Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi-
valent for Sicilv .... 1720
Victor Amadeus, having the title of king
abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730
Attempting, to recover Sardinia, he is
taken, and dies in prison - - - 1732
[The court kept at Turin till 1706, when
these dominions were overrun by the
French arms, and shortly afterwards
annexed to the French empire.]
The king resigns his crown to his bro-
ther, duke of Aoust - . June 4, 1802
Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona-
parte crowned king of the whole.
December 26; 1805
Restored to its rightful sovereign, with
Genoa added to it December 1814
King Charles Albert, having protested
against Austrian encroachments in
Italy, calls out an additional force of
25,000 men - . - - Jan. 10, 1848
Proclaims the basis of a Constitution
Feb. 8, 1848
Declares war against Austria, entei-s
Milan with Aa army, to assist the po-
pular cause, and drives the Austrians
towards Mantua - - March 23,
Takes Lodi - - . . April 1,
Forces the Austrian line near Verona,
April 17,
Takes Peschiara - - - May 30,
Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky,
at Goito
Sardinian army driven from Vicenza,
Verona, the Adigc, &c., June-July -
Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of
Milan Aug. 4.
Followed by an armistice
Rupture of the armistice - - March
Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under
Charles Albert, totally defeated by
Radetsky
The king "abdicates in favor of his son,
Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and
leaves the kingdom - March 23,
Insurection at Genoa against the new
king April 1 ,
Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5,
and fully reduced - - April 11,
Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis-
bon - - - . - July 28,
Victor Emanuel opens the legislative
chamber with a moderate speech, and
is warmly greeted - Aug. 1.
Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6,
The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re-
lieve the refugees fom various parts
of Italy . - - Aug. 30,
1848
1848
KINGS OP SARDINIA.
.. D. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema-
nuel duke of Savoy.
1730. Charles Emanuel
1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II.
1796. Charles Emanuel.
1802. Victor Emanuel.
1821. Charles Felix.
1831. Charles Albert, April 27.
1848. Victor Emanuel
SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its
appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in
this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116
saw] dictionary of dates. 519
B. c. — Livij. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we
may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ao-
companied with mire and dirt. — Horace.
SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with
the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol
worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was
named by them Saterne's-day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn,
dies Saturni. — Addison.
SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the
sun, and its diameter to be 89.170 miles. His satellites were discovered by
Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1634*;
his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by
Herscliel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the
planets.
SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn, They were instituted long
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and
equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some,
however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in . he
reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while
others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from
whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first
celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu-
mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were
encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased
to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet.
SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac-
cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was
adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an
extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks
to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed.
Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings
banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in
that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount
deposited, 32,661,924/. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi-
ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous
throughout the United States.
SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d.
395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till
1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title
of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi-
nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from
Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country
in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont
Blanc, in 1800.
SAW. Invented by Daedalus.— PZiwy. ImGXiia^ hy TaXviS.—Apollodorus. Ta-
lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it.
Beccher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he
errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427.
Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador
from Mary of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there,
1565. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur-
key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts ta introduce them were
520 THE world's progress. [sch
violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be
abandoned.
SAXONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied
to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the
same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than
two hundred years». from lloO to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many
centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick
Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his
brother, Anthony, May 6, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au-
gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became
the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at
Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put
down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849.
SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating
to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land,
such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements,
false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard JI,. 1378.
SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c.
Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything,
never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject,
and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence.
As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life
and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he
did not hurry himself out of the world? "Because,"" says he, "there
is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol-
lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. —
Slrabo.
SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the
earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ';
they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was
the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Lc
Gendre.
SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc-
tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. —
Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scully. In Eng-
land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the
education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro-
chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday
schools) 4,836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of
schools in Wales is 841, and the number of children 38,164 : in Ireland,
13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of
public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund
in Maine amounts to $350.000 ; in Massachusetts, S850.000 ; in Connecticut,
S2.077.641 ; New York, $6,491.803 ; New Jersey, $369,278 ; Delaware,
S225,000; Virdnia, $1,448,261 ; Georgia, $262,300; Alabama, $1.215,381 ;
• Tennessee, $1,346,068 ; Kentucky, $1,221,819 ; Ohio, $1,566.931 ; Michigan,
$500,000; Indiana, $2,195,149 ; Missouri, $575,668; Iowa, $132,909. Total
in 1849, $21,420,275. In the State of New York the number of District
School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libraries, &c.
SCIENCE IN THE United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752.
American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United
States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792, Botanic garden and Professor of
SCY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 621
Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845.
SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men-
tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck
of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This
brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these
rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which
were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went
instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romriey and
Firebrand, w^ere also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sir
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory.
SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire
was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued
an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth,
when James.TI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the
throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc-
cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and eacb
country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of
queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name (./
Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., ct seq.
SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping-
screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylindcr for raising water, invented 236 b. c,
is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the
screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the
two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each
handle twelve inches, the circle that thej^ describe in going round will be
seventy-five inches, and consequently 160 times greater than half an inch,
the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the
assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could
do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the
spirals and the length of the handles. — Ch-eig.
SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty.
The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by
others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and
sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach
to perfection in the art to 5G0 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel
and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the
vessels and ornaments, w^ere the first architects and sculptors of repute, and
the4r excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipcenus and
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of
them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues
before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, hoM'ever, can only be fact
so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art
was known long before. Alexander gave L3\sippus the sole right of making
his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were
so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in
gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the
Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of
the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donate di Bardi, born at
Florence, a. d. 1883, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp-
ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. —
Abb6 Lenglet.
SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and
Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and
522 THE world's progress. [ 6EM
Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account
of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast
tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians made
several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c.
624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight
years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in
Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ
they iniraded the Roman empire.
SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England is of very ancient date.
Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain,
and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England
over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken
by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1G33. The Dutch, after the death
of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated
by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed,
to avoid search, 1780 ; again 18u0. See Armed Neutrality and Flag.
SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1629.
Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed ;
and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for
Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the
reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for tlie
American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par-
liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the
secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of
State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington,
Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administratioiis. There is a Secre-
tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected
by the people.
SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of
things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all
others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula-
tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi-
sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balbi.
Jews .... 4,500,000 I Idolaters, &c., not professing the
Christians - - - - 225,000,000 Jewish, Christian, or Maho-
Mahometans - - - 155,000/)00 j metan worship - - 665,500,000
SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first
seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by
the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex-
claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of
beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran-
cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of
such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use
in 1649.
SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other
punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And
even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in
the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss
of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Foley's
Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by
the legislature oif New York in 184 .
SEMPACH, Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The
heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic-
tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es-
SEX ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 523
tablished the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo*
rated with great solemnity at Sempach.
SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the
seventh from March, whence its name, from Septimus, seventh. It became
the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by
Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name
of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his
own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of
Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor
Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into
disuse.
SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans-
lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and
on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or
letter. — Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen-
tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto-
lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the T?stai aent,
and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Josephus.
Finished in seventy-two days, — Hewlett.
SERINGAPATAM, Battles of, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the
British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts
were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792.
After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed
to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about
3,300,000Z. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his
two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be-
fore Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April
14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4,
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India.
SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily
attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus
along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many
of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its »kin was
afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American
papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the
coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from
Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which
was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an
Orkney pony, 1808.
SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in
1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants
was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on
servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000^. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue
from it had fallen to 201,482^.
SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at
Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the
Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov.
9, 1729, Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by
assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aue. 27,
1812.
SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains
sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of
the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh,
524
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[SHI
in 1650. — Viiice^s Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are
said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d,
99b.--Ashe.
SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed
being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved
detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467. — Anderson.
Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The
number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated —by som^
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840.
SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from sMre-reve, governor of a shire or
county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.^ reign ; but some say
that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William
in 1079.
SHERIFFMTJIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar-
gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier
de St. George, son of James 11. ), commanded by the earl of Mar ; the insur-
gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The
battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same
cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715.
SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven-
tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece
by Danaus, 1485 33. c. — Blair. The nrst double-decked ship was built by
the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng-
land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called
the Great Harry, and cost 14,000Z. — Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships
were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being
on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented
by Uescharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about
1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74-
gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed
with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping
of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from
New York — ate not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the
world. See Navy and Steam Vessels.
SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the
river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle
of the 18th centurj'", the shipping of England was but half a million of tons
— less than London now. In 1840, the number of ships in the British em-
pire was 29,174; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were
exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam Vessels.
SHIPPING OF THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different
Years.
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
17%
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
ld(H
1806
Tonnage.
502j46
Years.
1806
564,437
1807
491,780
1808
628,817
1809
747,964
1810
831,900
1811
876,913
1812
898,328
1813
946,408
1814
972,492
1815
1,033,219
1816
892,101
1817
949,147
1818
1,012,4(>4
1819
1,140,369
1820
Tonnage,
1,208,735
1.268,548
1,242,595
1,350,281
1,424,783
1,232,502
li>69,997
1,666,628
1,159,209
1,368,127
1,372,218
1,399,911
1,225,184
1,260,751
1.280,166
Years.
Tonnage.
1,298,958
1821
1822
1,324,699
1823
1,336,565
1824
1,389,163
1825
1,423,112
1826
1,5»4,190
1827
1,620,608
1828
1,741,392
1829
1,260,978
1830
1,191,776
1831
1,267,846
1832
1,439,450
1&33
1,601,150
1834
1,758,907
periods.
Years.
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1^1
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1^8
Tonnage.
1,824,940
1,892,102
1,896,685
1,995,639
2,096,478
2,180,764
2,130,744
2,092,390
2,158,6a2
2,2801)95
2,417,002
2,562/»4
2,839^346
3,160,502
8Hr] dictionary of dates. 625
SHIP-MONEY. It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions.
• This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu-
tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men;
Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000Z. ; Bristol in one ship of 100
tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp-
den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place
in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641.
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June
24, 1643.
SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping.
SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener-
ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du F\'esnoy.
Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of
Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse "kind (fine coming at this period
from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans. —
Stowe.
SHOES. Among the Jews the}^ were made of leather, linen, rush, or vood.
Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah
iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would
have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that
they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re-
frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by
women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their
shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians,
like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng-
land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore
the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves
in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen
fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces.
This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for-
feiture of 205. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467.
See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The
buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe; Mortimer.
SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops
was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in
London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute
whereby shop-lifting Avas made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was
passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See
Acts.
SHREWSBURY, Battlk of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the
army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of
Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con-
sisted of about 12,000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry
was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son,
who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side,
and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per-
formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur
supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and
every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300
gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur
by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory
to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.]
SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated,
and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the
treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51.
526
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
f SIC
While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by
the splendors that surrounded him. "Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible
that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an
humble cottage in Britain 1" The emperor was affected with the British
hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained
upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith.
SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con-
fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per-
mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake
of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and hence arose the
custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek
Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. On these
days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated,
provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ;
and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in
every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the
parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par-
ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the
name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430.
SIBYLS. The Sibyllae were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished
in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks
of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of ten, an
opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti-
nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon
the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for
the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again
demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created
to consult them on all occasions, 531 b. c.
SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani,
a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A
second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy,
1264 B. c. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here,
and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they
were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors
suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was
separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb-
dis were formed. — Justin ; Livy.
Arrival of Ulvsses.— Corner - - B.C.
He puts out the eye of Polyphemus
Syracuse fournX^a.—Eusebius
Gela founded. — Thucydides - - -
Arrival of the Messeniaus -
Phalaris, tyrant of Agri^entum, put to
death.— See Brazen BuU - - -
Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela
Law of Petalism instituted
H iign of Dionysius - - - -
I » Vended with the freedom of the philo-
sopher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a
slave. — Stanley - -
Plato ransomed by his friends -
Damon and Pythias flourish. — See Damon
and Pythias ....
The sway of Timoleon - • - -
Usurpation of Agathocles •
Defeat of Hamilcar - - • -
Pillage of the temples of Lepari
1186
1186
732
713
668
552
496
466
405
The Romans arrive m Sicily - b. c.
Agrigentum taken by the Romans
Palermo besieged by the Romans - •
Archimedes flourishes
The Romans take Syracuse, and make all
Sicily a province - - - -
The servile war began. — Livy
264
202
254
236
212
135
021
Conquered by the Saracens - a.d.
[They made Palermo the capital, and the
standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200
years.]
They are driven out by a Norman prince,
Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the
title of count of Sicily - - - 1080
Roger II., son of the above-named, unites
Sicily with Naples, and is crowned kmg
of the Two Sicilies - - - 1130
Charles of Anjou, bro'herto St. Louis, king
of France, conquf rs Naples and Sicily,
sie]
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
527
SICILY, continued.
deposes the Norman princes, and makes
himself king - - . a. d. 1266
The French becoming hated by the Sici-
lians, a general massacre of the invaders
takes place, one Frenchman only escap-
ing.— See Sicilian Vespers - - 12S8
La the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet
sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ;
but Naples remains to the house of An-
jou, which expires - - - 1382
line, the late sovereign, having left her
crown to Louis, dukeof Anjou, his pre-
tensions are resisted by Charles Du-
razzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the
throne 13S6
Alphonsus. king of Arragon, takes posses-
sion of Naples .... 1458
Th', kingdom of Naples and Sicily united
to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504
The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an
insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a
fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises
two hundred thousand men - - 1647
Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of
these commotions, procures himself to
be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few
days, delivered up to the Spaniards by
his adliorents - - - - - 1647
Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the
treaty of Utrecht - - A. d. 1713
Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI,,
Sardinia being given to him as an equi-
valent - - - - . 1720
The Spaniards having made themselves
masters of both kingdoms, CharleSj^son
of the king of Spain, ascends the thfone,
with the ancient title renewed, of king
of the Two Sicilies - - - 1731
Order of St. .Januarius instituted by king
Charles 1739
The throne of Spain becoming vacant,
Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne
of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother
Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 17f -9
Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily,
which destroys 40,000 persons - - 1783
Naples preserved from the power of the
P'rench by the British forces under admi-
ral Nelson .... 1799
Violent earthquake in the neighborhood
of Naples .... 180G
The French invade Naples, depose k 'ig
Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of .He
Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro-
ther to the emperor of the French - 1806
For subsequent events, see Naples.
KINGS OP THE TWO SICILIES,
A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he
resigned it to the emperor Charles
VI.," in 1718, and got Sardinia in
lieu o( it.
1718. Charles VI. emperor.
1734. Charles, second son to the king of
Spain, resigned in 1759.
1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former
king.
1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte.
18U8. Joachim Murat : he was shot, October 13,
1815.
1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of
Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand
IIL of Sicily ; now of the United King-
dom of the Two Sicilies.
1826. Francis I.
1830. Ferdinand II., Nov 8.
SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known
by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had
become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou
was already ripe, when the following- occurrence led to develop and accom-
plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa-
lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride
happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a
Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af-
front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city,
crying out "Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age,
or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number of
8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the
massacre became general throughout the island.
SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out
for nineteen years. — Usker. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus.
This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege
of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol-
lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen
tury :—
Acre, 1192, 1799, by fiona- I Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vesseh Almeida, August 27, 1810
parte ; siege raised after \ first vsnd by a. French en- Amiens, 1597.
wdaysy open trenches. I 'gincerjtanied Benaii, ]S\& Ancona, 1798.
Algesiras, 1341. | Alknuu-i. l.57;V Angouleme, 1345.
628
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
[8IS
STEGJES, continued.
Antwerp., 1576. Use of in-
fernal machines, 1583, 1585
1706, 1792, 1814.
Arras, 1414.
Ath, 1745.
Avignon, 1226.
Azoff. 1736.
Badaj os. March 11,1811. Ta-
ken by escalade on the
night of April 6, 1812.
Bagdad, 1248:
Bangalore, March 6, 1791.
Barcelona, 1697, 1714.
Bayonne, 1451.
Beauvais, 1472.
Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521,
1^, 1717, 1739, 1789,
Bellegarde, 1793, 1794.
Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761.
Bergen-op-Zoom, 158S, 1622,
1747, 1814.
Berwick, 1293.
Besancon, 1668, 1674.
Bethune, 1710.
Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794.
Bologna, 1512, 1796.
Bommel; the inventio7i of
the coverttoay, 1794.
Bonifacio, 1553.
Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703
Bordeaux, 1451, 1653.
Bouchain, 1676, 1711.
Boulogne, 1545.
Brannau, 1744, 1805.
Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793.
Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799.
Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807.
Brisac, 1638, 1703.
Brussels, 1695, 1746.
Buda, 1526,1541, 1686.
Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22,
1812 ; raised. The French
in their retreat blew up the
works, .Tune 13, 1813.
Cadiz, 1812.
Caen, 1346, 1450.
Calais, 1347, (British histo-
rians affirm that cannon
were used at C'ressy, 1346,
and here in 1347. First
used here in 1388.— Ry-
mer's Fobd.) 1558, 1596.
Oalvi, 1794.
Campo-Mayor, Mar. 23, 181 1.
Candia ; the largest cannon
then known injEurope used
here by the Turks, 1667.
Capua, 1501.
Carthagena, 1706.
Castillon, 1452, 1586.
Ceuta, 1790.
Chalons, 1199.
Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693,
1736, 1794.
Chartres, 1568, 1591.
Chaves, March 25, 1809.
Cherbourg, 1450.
Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812.
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706; July
10, 1810; Jan. 19, 1812.
Colberg,- 1760, 1807.
Colchester, 1645.
Compiegne (Joan of Arc).,
1430.
Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794.
Coni, 1691, 1744.
Constantinople, 1453.
Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807.
Corfu, 1715.
Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794.
Cracow, 1772.
Cremona, 1702.
Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813
to Jan. 12, 1814.
Dendermonde, 1667.
Dole, 1668, 1674.
Douay, 1710.
Dover, 1216.
Dresden, 174-5, 1813.
Drogheda, 1649.
Dublin, 1500.
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793.
Edinburgh, 1093.
Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811.
Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809.
Fontenoy, 1242.
Frederickshal ; Charles XII.
kiUed, 1718.
Frederickstein, August 13,
1814.
Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793.
Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 173^1, 1799,
July, 1806, 1815.
Genoa 1747, 1800.
Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809.
Ghent, 1576, 1708.
Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See
Gibraltar), 1782.
Glatz, 1742, 1807.
Gottingen, 1760.
Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794.
Gravelines, 1644
Grenada, 1491, 1492.
Groninsen, 1580, 1672, 1795.
GuastaHa. 1702.
Gueldres, 1637, lf>40, 1703.
Ilaerlem, 1572, 1573.
Ham, 1411.
Harrteur, 1415, 1450.
Heidelberg, 16SS.
Herat, June 28. 1838.
Huningen, 1815.
Ismael: the merciless Siiwa?'-
row butchered 130,000 men,
the brave garrison, and
6000 women, in cold blood,
Dec. 22, 1790.
Kehl, 1733, 1796.
Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713,
1792, and 1793.
Landrecis, 1543, 1712.
Laon, 991, 1594.
Leipsic, 1637. et seq., 1813.
Lemberg, 1704.
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807.
Leyden, 1574.
Liege, 1468, 1702.
Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792.
Lilo, 1747.
Limerick, 1651 , 1691.
Londonderry, 1689.
Louisbourg, 1758.
Lyons, 1793.
Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau-
ban first came into notice^
1676, 1743, 1794.
Magdebourg, 1631, 1806.
Malaga, 1487.
Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800.
Mantua, 17M, 1797, 1799.
Marseilles, 1544,
Mentz, by Charles V., 1552,
1689, 1792 et seq., 1797.
Melun, 1420, 1559.
Menin, 1706, 1744.
Mequinenza, June 8, 1810.
Messina, 1282, 1719.
Metz, 1552.
Mezieres, 1521.
Middleburgh, 1572.
Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746,
1792, 1794.
Mcntargis, 1427.
Montauban, 1621.
Montevideo, Jan. iS08.
Mothe : the French, taught by
a Mr. Midler, an English
engineer, fir St practised the
art of throwing shells, 1634.
Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811.
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792.
Naples, 1.381, 1435, 1504, 1557,
1792, 1799, 1806.
Nice, 1705.
Nieuport, 1745, 1794.
Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811.
Olmutz, 1758.
Orleans, 1428, 1563.
Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745.
Oudenarde, 1708, 1745.
Padua, 1509.
Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813.
Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594.
Parma 1248.
Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796.
Perpignan, 1542, 1642.
Philipville, 1.578.
Philipsburg, 1644, 167.5, 1688,
first ctperiment of firing
artillery a-ricochet, 1734,
1795.
Piattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814.
Pondicherry, 1748, 1792.
Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744.
Puebla, (col. Child) 1847.
Quesnoy, 1794.
Rennes, 1.357.
Rheims, 1.359.
Rhodes, 1522.
Riga, 1700, 1710.
Rochelle, 1573, 1627.
Rome, 1527, 1798.
Romorentin ; artillery fir»t
used in sieges. -YohTXtRE
1256.
Rosas, 1645, 1795? 1808.
Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591.
Roxburgh, 1460.
St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813.
Salamanca, June 27 1812
Salisbury, 13^49.
Saragossa, 1710, 1809.
Saverne, 1675.
Schweidnitz ; first experi-
ment to reduce a fortress
sil]
DICTIONARY OP DATES,
529
SIEGES, conti7iued.
by springing globes of com-
jyression, 1762, 1807.
Scio (see Greece), 1822.
Seringapatam. 1799.
Seville 1096, 1248.
Smolensko, 1611.
Soissons, 1414.
Stralsund ; the method of
throwing red hot balls first
practised with certainty,
1675^^13, 1807.
Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811.
Tarragona, May 1813.
Temeswar, 1716.
Thionville, 1643, 1792.
Thorn, 1703.
Thouars, 1372, 1793.
Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811.
Toulon, 1707, 1793.
Toulouse, 1217.
Toumay, 1340, 1352, 1581,
1667, 1709, (this was the
best defence ever drawn
from countermines), 1745,
1794.
Treves, 1675.
Tunis, 1270, 1535
Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799.
Urbino, 1799.
Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811.
Valencienes, 1677, 1794.
Vannes, 1343.
Venloo, 1702, 1791
Verdun, 1792.
Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847.
Vienna, 1529, 1683.
Wakefield, 1460.
Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831.
Xativa, 1707.
Xeres, 1262.
Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794.
Zurich, 1544.
Zutphen, 1572, 1586.
SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with
free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites,
mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra
Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786.
The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives,
February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder-
ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824.
SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at
Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the
use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves
by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of
silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for
weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees.
Silk- worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char-
lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780.
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130,
when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south
of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510 ; and Henry IV.
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1689.
In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at
Kenil worth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534.
Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in
1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in London, at Spital-
fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori-
ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714.
SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other
ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in
1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel.
In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a
mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum
at Copenhagen, weighing 660 lbs., and worth 1680Z. In England silver-plate
and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty
and ambitious man, a. d. 709. — TyreWs Hist, of England. Silver knives,
spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300.
SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by
Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor,
269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which
were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin
in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840' inclusive,
28
530 THE world's PROGRESS. [ SLA
were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 155. in silver, being a yearly
average of U^,SZOl.—Parl. Ret
SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder
Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome
aboutA. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he
had many followers, a. d. 67. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in
France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and
the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu-
larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting iu London, held Jan.
24, 1834.
SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancient custom both
among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which
was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode
and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the
empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. a. d. 386, ec-cle-
siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it
was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern
nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with jl tedious
sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of
the world. — St. Augustin, Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church
music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge-
neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 6C6.
SI RN AMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and
distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes^ or Be-
nefactor ; PhilofaUr, lover of his father ; PhUometer, lover of his mother,
&C. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris-
tides was called the Just ; Phocion the Good ; Plato, the Athenian Bee ;
Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian
Sage ; Menedaemus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus, the Laughing Philoso-
ph£7- ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng-
land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old
Normans used Mtz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used 0,
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed
Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such
as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and
other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1436.—
Rymer's Eoedera, vol. x.
SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi-
nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia,
and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven,
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves,
The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show theii
proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only,
they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold
the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 336 b. c. See
Helots.
SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of «
^•eat man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast
By one of the laws of the XH. Tables, creditors could seize their insolven)
debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, thej
had discharged the sum they owed. C. PoUio threw such slaves as gave
him the slightest offfence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 B. c
CaBcllius Isidorui left to'his heir'4116 slaves, 12 b. c.
SLA ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 58i
SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known ; and laws respect-
ing the sale of slaves was made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so
commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were
sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire-
land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a
runaway, or anyone who lived idly for three days, should be brought before
two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and
adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take
the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and
cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that
space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead
or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second
desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck,
arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, and, on running
away, become a slave to his master, 1547.
SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the
Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone,
describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized
a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four
millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri-
soners for the Christian market. The Abb6 Raynal computes that, at the
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans,
"Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr.
Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768.
the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786,
the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the
English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by
government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn
from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been
sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave
trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade,
allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives
of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841.
King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct.
9, 1847.
SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was
the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic
of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring
neeroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West
Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the
colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should
" European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our feUow-creatures,
recollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and
that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning.— Cooper's Ijbttbrs on thb Slavb
Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im-
punity. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure calleid down upon us the
frowns and the judgments of heaven.
" By foreign wealth are British morals changed,
And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged."
1 he trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United
Stales in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February
1815. Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain,
1817 ; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic contmues
t> be encouraged in several states.— JFfaj/rfn.
§82
THE world's progress.
[ SMD
be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng^
land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and
that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantable
negroes at. moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships,
and carried off 42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ;
and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe-
riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of
slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to
770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament
in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The
motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798.
After several other efforts of humane and just men, the question was
introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then m}T.lo-
ters, March 31, 1806 : and the trade was finally abolished by parliament.
March 25, 1807.
SLAVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe.
Many of the early navigators to Ame-
rica, including Columbus himself,
carried considerable numbers of the
aborigines to Europe, where they
were sold into slavery. Queen Isa-
bella commanded the liberation of
Indians held in bondage in her pos-
sessions, in - - - - 1501
— but the next /ear the slavey of In-
dians was recognized as lawful ; and
the practice of selling the natives of
North America into foreign bondage
continued for nearly two centuries.
The excellent Winthrop enumerates
Indians among his bequests. — Banr
croft.
SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade.
The first negro slaves in (he English
colonies of North America were
brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel
of war .... - 1620
Negroes " who had been fraudulently
brought from Guinea" to Massachu-
setts (the first in New England), were
sent home at the public expense by
the general court of that colony • 164G
Gorton and Roger Williams made a de-
cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652
White staves were sold in England, to
be transported to Virginia : average
price for 5 years' service, J65— while
a negro was worth £25.— Bancroft ■ 1672
Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650
The Quakers abolished slavery among
themselves .... 1754
Resolutions against the slave trade
passed by the first congress of the
colonies .... 1774
Act against the external slave trade
pa^ed by congress of the United
States 1789
[Slavery had been already prohibited
in most of the northern States in their
constitutions.]
Act of congress against fitting out ves-
sels for slave trade . " . - 1794
Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni-
ted States from holding property in
foreign slave vessels. United States
vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1800
Act forbidding, under heavy penalties,
the introduction of slaves into the
United States .... 1807
Act declaring the slave trade piracy,
punishable with death - - 1820
[Slavery has, however, been continued
in thirteen of the States. See Mis-
souri.]
The number of slaves in the United
States in 1790 was - - - 697,697
In 1800 896,84f
In 1810 1,191,364
In 1820 1,538,064
Inl&30 2,010,43£
In 1840 2,4S7,3K
SLAVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the
British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted
slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser-
vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000,000^. sterling
passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act
slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,28(
slaves became free.
SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one daj
attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con
tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says h(
slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found every object so al
tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 yeare
SOD J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 583
596 B. c. We have man}', and even very late, instances of persons in
these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months.
SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the
small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect
success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment,
to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned.
Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr.
Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie-
sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a na.
tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left ;elOO,000
" to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress
accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846.
Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847.
SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated
Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The
French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but
they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city,
which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli,
the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor
Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff" succeeded
to the command, Aug. 17, 1812.
SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to
enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af-
terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against
smuggling was enacted in 1736.
SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures
made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo
in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice
soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider-
ably more tlian 3,000,0000/. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 6, 1840,
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were
entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263/. See Tobacco.
SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express
mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be
an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap.
In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon
in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, washed theirs by
treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey ^ book vi.
The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it
was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound.
SOBRAON, Battle of ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir
Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene-
my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ;
and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear,
the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and
more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British
loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846.
SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thenars, and
queen Pomare deposed, Nor. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by
the French government.
SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all
men have common interests, and that society ought t6 be, accordingly, or-
584 THE world's progress. Lsoa
ganized on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in
all ages and nations ; by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among
the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among the
Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the
Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella,
A. D. 1623 ; and by Babeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern
teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was born at Besan<;on in 1772;
and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri
St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of
England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru-
mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France,
England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a
considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made
by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize
labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious
sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers,
adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements.
SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Lselius Socinus.
They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he
was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per-
son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ
died only to ^ve mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc-
trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated
as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon,
SQDOM AND GrOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed
by fire from heaven, 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy
was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri-
minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive.
The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry
Vin., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by
statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562.
SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga-
tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught
by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he
placed the sun in the centre, and all jihe planets moving in elliptical orbits
round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in-
quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most
accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha-
goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copemican
system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695.
How truly the poet says —
" He who through vast immensity can pierce,
See worlds on worlds compose one universe.
Observe how system into system runs,
What other planets circle other suns,
What variea beings people every star,
May tell why Heaven has made us what we are."— Pope.
SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance
from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October
30, 1004 B. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Usher,
Lenglet.
SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions,
88 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 6 Eli-
zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing
with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances
of the punishment of sorcerers, see Witchcraft.
spa] dictionary of dates. 685
•
SOUDAN orSOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs,
which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora-
dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt,
A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.
SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when
the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated.
Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ;
Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were
fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet.
The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles
on the sea. See Acoustics.
SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Edipus, took extraordinary
soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena,
where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was
made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300
mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the
weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840.
SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made
under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re-
ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary
government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo-
ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par-
liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South
Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times.
This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active
in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by
the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution
adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73 ; " nullification ordinance " passed
Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249,000; in 1810, 415,115,- in 1830,
581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves.
SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in
1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which
ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates,
to the value of 2,014,000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier,
absconded with 100,000Z. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000^., and
returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king-
dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The
artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100^., to the
enormous price of lOOOZ. See Lww's Bubble.
SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. . See Impostors, &c.
SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal,
fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively
planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun-
try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals,
Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun-
dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et seq.
The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain Alphonsus II. refusing to par the Sara-
from the Romans - - a. d. 412 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins,
The Visigoths enter Spain under their war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo-
leader, Euric .... 472 rious, and obtains the appeUation of
The Saracens from Arabia invade the " the chaste" • - A. d. 791 at sea,
country - - - 7\^etseq. Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. . 8w)
Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Ferdinand I., count of Castile, takes the
kingof Asturias ♦ . - 718 title of king . - • - KfiO
536
THE world's progress.
\bta
SPAIN, continued.
Union of Nararre and Castile - a. d. 1031
The kingdom of Arragon commenced
under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035
Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037
Portugal taken from the Saracens by
Henry of Bourbon • - -1087
The Saracens, beset on all sides by the
Christians, call in the aid of the Moors
from Africa, who seize the dominions
they came to protect, and subdue the
Saracens - - - 1091 et seq
The Moors defeated in several battles
by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118
Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one
great pitched battle - • -1135
University of Salamanca founded - 1200
Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226
Cordova, the residence of the first Moor-
ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas-
tile and Leon .... 1236
The kingdom of Granada begun by the
Moors, their last refuge from the
power of the Christians - -1238
Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252
The crown of Navarre passes to the
roval family of France - - 1276
200,000 Moors invade Spain - - 1327
They are defeated by Alphonsus XL,
with great slaughter - - -1340
The infant Don Henriquez, son of John
the First of Castile, first had the title
of prince of Asturias - - - 1388
Ferdinand XL of Arragon marries Isa-
bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole
Christian dominions of Spain are uni-
ted in one monarchy - - - 1474
Granada taken after a two years' siege ;
and the power of the Moors finally
extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492
Columbus is sent from Spain to explore
the western world - - - 1492
Ferdinand conquers the greater part of
the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512
AccessioB of the house ofAustria to the
throne of Spain - - - 1516
Charles V. of Spain and Germany re-
tires from the world . - - 1556
Philip L commences his bloody perse-
cution of the Protestants - - 1561
The Escurial began building - - 1562
Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580
The invincible Spanish Armada de-
stroyed. See Armada, and Naval
Battles .... 1588
Philip III. banishes the Moors and their
descendants, to the number of 900,000,
from Spain - - - - 1610
Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640
Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704
Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714
Charles IIL, king of the Two Sicilies,
succeeds to the crown - - 1759
Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,-
000 dollars, seizea by the English
Oct. 29, 1804
Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar,
Battle of - ' Oct. 31, 1505
Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806
Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias
against nis father • July 5^, 1807
Treaty of Fontainebleau • Oct. 27, 1807
The French take Madrid - a. d. March, 1809
The prince of Peace dismissed by the
king of Spain - Margh 18, 18(\8
Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of
Ferdinand - - March 19. 1803
And at Bayonne, in favor ofhis " friend
and ally,*' Napoleon, when Ferdi-
nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 1808
The French are massacred at Madrid,
May 2, 1808
Napoleon assembles the notables at
Bayonne - - May 25, 1808
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as
king of Spain - - July 12, 1808
He retires from the capital - July 29, 1808
Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808
Madrid retaken by the French, and Jo-
seph restored - - Dec. 2. 1808
The royal family of Spain imprisoned
in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy,
Dec. 5, 1008
[Spain now becomes the scene of the
struggle called the Peninsular War,
for the events of which see the arti-
cles severally.]
Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812
Ferdinand VII. restored • May 14, 1814
Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820
Ferdinand swears to the constitution of
the Cortes - - March 8, 1820
Removal of the king to Seville, ana
thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823
The French enter Spain • April 7, 1823
They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823
Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823
Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis-
solved ; executions - Oct, 1823
Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823
The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828
Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829
Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830
Queen of Spain appointed regent dur-
ing the king's indisposition, and a
complete change made in the minis-
try - - - Oct. 25, 1832
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate
successor to his brother's throne,
should the king die - April 29, 1833
Death of Charles IV., and his queen
assumes the title of governing queen,
until Isabella II., her infant daughter,
attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833
The royalist volunteers disarmed, with
some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833
Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with
his family - - June 18, 1834
He suddenly appears among his ad-
herents in Spain - July 10, 1834
The peers vote the perpetual exclusion
of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1834
[Here commences the desolating civil
war, in which British auxiliaries take
the side of the queen.]
Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa,
and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1836
General Evans retires from the com-
mand of the auxiliary le^on, and ar-
rives in London, after having achieved
various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837
Madrid is declared in a state of siesre,
Aug: 11, 1837,
[Espartero and other Christino generals
SPA ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
537
SPAIN, continued.
engage with the Carlists, and nume-
rous conflicts take place with various
success.]
Madrid is again declared in a state of
siege . - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838
The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839
The Carlists under Marota desert Don
Carlos - - - Aug. 25, 1839
Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty
of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839
Don Carlos seeks refuge in France
Sept. 13, 1839
Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to
maintain the war, enters France with
a body of his troops - July 7, 1840
The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se-
bastian and Passages • Aug. 25, 1840
Espartero makes his triumphal entry
into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840
The queen regent appoints a new min-
istry, who are nominated by Espar-
tero .... Oct. 5. 1840
The abdication of the queen regent of
Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1&40
[She subsequently leaves the kingdom ;
visits France ; next settles in Sicily ;
but returns to France.]
Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the
papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840
The Spanish cortes declare Espartero
regent during the minority of the
young queen - - Apr. 12. l&ll
Insurrection in favor of Christina is
commenced at Pampeluna by Cen.
O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841
It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of
the kingdom - - Oct. 1841
Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at
Madrid, and his followers are repuls-
ed, and numbers of them slain by the
queen's guard - - Oct. 7, l&ll
Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is
shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841
Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841
Rodil, the constitutional general, enters
Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841
Espartero decrees the suspension of
queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841
Espartero makes his triumphal entry
into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841
An insurrection breaks out at Barce-
lona ; the national guard joins the
populace - - Nov. 13, 1842
Battle in the streets between the national
guard and the troops : the latter lose
500 in killed and wounded, and retreat
to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842
The troops evacuate the citadel, and
retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 184S
The regent Espartero arrives before
Barcelona, and demands its uncondi-
tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842
Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842
It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842
The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843
The revolutionary junta is-re-establish-
ed *t Barcelona - - June 11, 1843
[CoruLna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago,
and numerous other towns, shortly
afterwards " pronounce" against the
regent Espartero.]
Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid,
which surrenders - - July 15, 1843
Espartero bombards Seville • July 21, 1843
The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843
[The revolution is completely success-
ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and
embarks on board her Majesty's ship
Malabar.]
The new government deprive Espartero
of his tules and rank - Au^. 16, 1843
Espartero and his suite and friends ar-
rive in London - • Aug. 23, 1843
Reaction against the new government
breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843
. The young queen Isabella II., 13 years
j olcf, is declared by the cortes to be of
I age - - - Nov. 8, 1843
; The queen-mother. Christina, returns to
I Spain - - - March 23, 1844
I Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re-
\ linquishes his right to the crown, in
I favor of his son - - May 18, 1845
Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb.
12 ; they return to power, March 17 ;
and again resign - - March 28, 1846
The queen is publicly affianced to her
cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke
of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846
Escape of Don Carlos and others from
France - - - Sept. 14, 1846
Marriage of the queen ; and marriage
also of the infanta Louisa to the duke
de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846
[The Montpensier marriage occasions
the displeasure of England, and dis-
turbs the friendly relations of the
French and English governments.]
Amnesty granted by the queen to po-
litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846
The queen has a son bom, who dies the
same day - - - July 1, 1850
KINGS OF SPAIN.
A.D, 406. AlaricL, king of the Goths; murdered.
411. Athaisus; murdered by his soldiers.
415. Wallia.
420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle.
450. Torrismunn , assassinated by his fa-
vorite.
452. Theodoric II.
466. Euric.
484. Alaric II. ; killed in battle.
607. Gcsalric; killed in battle.
511. Amalaric; killed in battle.
531. Theodat ; assassinated by a madman.
23'^
548. Theodisele ; murdered for female vio-
lation.
549, Agila; taken prisoner and put to death.
554. Athanagild.
567. From this year to the year 687, sixteen
kings reigned.
687. Egica or Egiza.
697. Vitizza.
741. Roderick ; killed in battle in 714.
An interregnum till
718. Pelagius.
736. Faviia ; killed by a boar in hunting.
588
THE world's PROOEESS.
[8P1
SPAIN, continued.
738. Alphonsus I. : Catholic.
767. Froila I. : killed by his brother Aure-
lius.
768. Aurelius.
774. Silo.
783. Mauregat.
789. Vereraond.
791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste.
324. Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to
the sword in one battle.
860. Ordogno I.
862. Alphonsus HI. ; sumamed the great ;
deposed by his son.
910. Garcias.
914. Ordogno 11.
923. Froila II.
924. Alphonsus IV. : abdicated.
931. Ramiro 11. , killed in battle.
950. Ordogno III.
955. Ordogno IV.
956. Sancno I., the Fat; poisoned with an
apple
967. Ramiro III.
982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty.
999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of
Viscu.
1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle.
1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and
Castile.
1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile :
Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and
Garcias in Galicia.
1075i Alphonsus VI., the Valiant ; in Castile
and Leon.
1109. Alphonsus VII.
1122. Alphonsus VIII.
1157. Sancho IIL, the Beloved, in Castile;
Ferdinand in Leon.
1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile.
1214. Henry I.
1236. Ferdinand IIL the Holy; in him Cas-
tile and Leon were reunited, and per-
petually annexed.
12B2. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed.
1284. Sancho IV., the Brave; Peter IIL in
Arragon.
1295. Ferdinand IV.
1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon.
1360. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated
by Edward the Black Prince of Eng-
land; afterwards beheaded by hia
subjects.
1368. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by
a monk.
1379. John L ; he united Biscay to Castile.
1390, Henry IIL, the Sickly.
1406. John 11.
1454. Henry IV. the Impotent.
1474. Ferdinand v., the Catholic, in whom,
by his marriage with Isabella, the
kingdoms of Castile and Arragon
were united.
1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queen
Joan.
1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms.
1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany ,
resigned both crowns, and retired to
a monastery.
1555. Philip II. , married Mary, queen- reg-
nant of England.
1598. Philip IIL, son of the preceding; he
drove the Moors from Grenada and
the adjacent provinces.
1621. Philip IV., his son; a reign of nearlv
contmuous and unfortunate wars with
the Dutch and France.
1665. Charles II.
1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to
Louis XIV. of France ; resigned.
1724. Lewis I, ; who reigned only a few
months.
1724. Philip V. ; again.
1745. FerdmandVL, sumamed the Wise ; he
distinguished his reign by acts of
liberality and beneficence.
1759. Charles IIL, king of the Two Sicilies.
1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of his
son and successor.
1808. Ferdinand VIL, whom Napoleon, of
of France, also forced to resign.
1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo-
leon; deposed.
1814. Ferdinand VIL ; restored ; succeeded
by his daughter.
1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29; who came to thfl
throne when three years of age.
While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun-
try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor-
able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From
the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and
the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state,
and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from
the kingdom.
SPANISH ARMADA against England. See article Armada.
SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of
the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for
eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is
supposed to have been the first king, 1616 b. g. From Lacedaemon the fourth
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the
city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history of
Lacedsemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings,
from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclid;©, comprising about four hun-
6Pl] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539
dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidse as absolute monarchs, till
Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the
goverament, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the
establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors
by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the
appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five h\m-
dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub-
jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy-
two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views : Greece,^ page 7, et *
seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They
cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their
laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu-
tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never
were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They
hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them-
selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The
women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall
of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their
own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought
disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet.
SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un-
known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been inventetl
in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy,
about A. D. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own
illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly
given by Bacon about 1280. Some afiirm that the real inventor was Salvi-
no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his T^-eatise an Spec-
tacles.
SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent-
ed by Anaximander, 652 u. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in-
vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed
by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to
the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres.
SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the
goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca-
dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with
her maids was found spinning, when her husband CoUatinus paid a visit to
her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a
garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tem-
ple of Fortune. Augustus Cassar usually wore no garments but such as
were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. . The spinning-wheel was in-
vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton
was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles.
Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's
machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Mar-
grave's ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread,
and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he
worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream
of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which
is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P dUips.
SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was
the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the
French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet to
540 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ STA
condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor
Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants.
SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor-
rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of
numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liqtiors
have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support
of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits,
Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil-
lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840,
on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2,830,263 gallons ; brandy,
1,107,766 gallons ; Geneva, 18,640 gallons ; on other foreign spirits, 8,758
eallons ; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons ; mak-
mg in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty
amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Part. Returns.
SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh TOUoughby, who called it
Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it
was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be
the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from
the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds.
STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by
statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was
commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which
stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable
statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain
which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the
United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com-
menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp-
duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,535^. j and in
1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c.
STANDARDS. See BauTiers, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the
cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross
to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on
the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em-
peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily.
Standard or Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car-
ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno-
rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. The
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed-
ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the
kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801.
STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished
with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and
part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its
roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth),
but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri-
chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito-
ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I.
The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of
the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent
of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in
their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con-
temptible.— Goldsmith. It was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were
STB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541
from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting toice.—
Gibbon.
STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b. c
Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and
that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus"), about 344 b. c. Job, He-
siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library
at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in
which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis-
covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System.
STA.TES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre-
viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con-
sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. . They were con-
vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 6, 1789. Here a
a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses,
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming
the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if
they refused^to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to
concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly.
STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the
dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of
great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was
not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer.
STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter
passed for one of the wonders of the world, Avas the greatest statuary among
the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the
request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with
ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden
statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the
art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast
models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among
the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that
of Charles I. in 1678.
STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge-
nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the
marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as "a way to drive up
water by fire," a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in-
ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery.
Watt's expansion engine - ... 1778
Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681
Captain Savery's engine constructed
for raising water - - • 1698
Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal
Society, about - - - • 1699
Atmospheric engine by Savery and
Newcomen .... 1713
First idea of steam navigation set forth
in a patent obtained by Hulls • 1736
Watt's invention of performing conden-
sation in a separate vessel from the
cylinder .... 1765
His first patent - ... 1769
His engines upon a large scale erected
in manufactories, and his patent re.
newed by act of parliament - - 1775
Thomas Paine proposed the application
of steam in America - - - -1778
Engine made to give a rotary motion • 1778
Double acting engines proposed by Dr.
Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779
Watt's double engine, and his first pa-
tent for it granted - . - . 1781
The marquess Jouffroy constructed an
engine on the Saone - - . 1781
Fitcns' experiments in steam naviga-
tion on the Delaware, (See Smithes
Am. Curios.) .... 1783-4
Oliver Evans' experiments in the
same 1785-6
Rumsey 's experiments in the same in
Virginia 1787
W. Symington made a passage on the
Forth and Clyde canal .... 1789
First steam-engine erected in Dublin by
Henry Jackson 1791
Jouffroy's experiments in France • • 1792
542
THE world's progress.
[ST&
STEAM ENGINE, continued.
Chancellor Liyingston builds a steamer
on the Hudson 1797
First experiment on the Thames • - 1801
The experiment of Mr. Symington re-
peated with success ... - 1802
Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802
Oliver Evans' experiments m locomo-
tive engines in Penn. - - - 1804
Woolf 8 double cylinder expansion en-
gine constructed .... 1804
Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806
Fulton started a steam-boat on the river
Hudson, built by himself, and named
"The North River;" engine by Boul-
ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33
hours: first steam navigation on
record ' ... 1807
The next three steam-boats in the world
were the Car of Neptune, - - 1808
The Paragon 1811
The Richmond 1812
all in New York.
Steam power to convey coals on a rail-
way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 181 1
Steam vessels first commenced plying
on the Clyde (first in Europe) - 1812
Steam applied to printing in the Times
office. See Press .... 1814
There were five steam vessels in Scot-
land iParl. Returns) in - - - 1813
First steam vessel on the Thames
brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1815
The first steamer built in England iParl.
Returns) 1815
The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons,
went from New York to Liverpool
in 26 days .... July 15, 1819
First steamer in Ireland - - - 1820
Captain Johnson obtained 10,000^. for
making the first steam voyage to In-
dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed
from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1825
Locomotive steam carriages on rail-
ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829
The Railway opened (see Liverpool) - 1830
The Great Western arrives from Bris-
tol at New York, and the Sirius from
Cork, same day, being their first voy-
age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1638
War steamers built in England - - 1838
First steamer of the Cunard line was
the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas-
sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840
STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States
gave an aggregate of 700 vessels— whole tonnage, 153,600 tons; but these
returns veere not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1860 was very great :
probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000
tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington,
which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole
number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United
States, in 1838, was 3,010.
STEAM VESSELS of the BRITISH EMPIRE.
STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ;
Year.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
Dependencies.
Total.
1814 .
0
5
0
1
6
1815
. . 3
5
0
2
10
1820 ♦
• 17
14
3
9
43
1825
. -112
36
3
17
168
1830 .
- 203
61
31
20
315
1835
- -344
85
68
48
545
1845 .
. 694
139
79
89
1001
STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated ba^
lance in the Pentateuck The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men-
tioned in 316 B. c.
STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac-
tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius,
improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The
Ars Scrihendl Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex-
tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1690.
There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement
and great simplicity.
STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking
the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1360. —
Anderson.
STEREOTYPE. See Printing. It is said that stereotyping was known in
1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged
STO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 543
of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by
others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran-
cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype
printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and
Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro-
duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem.
STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have
been invented by Cadwallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of his
plan in 1 779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan
to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist-
ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au-
thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that
which Golden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New
York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In
June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr.
J. W. Francis.
STOGKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In
1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock-
ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones
any more. — Howell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose,
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ;
for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with
a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and
the present was then much taken notice of — Idem. Others relate that Wil-
liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant,
a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like
them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind
made in England, 1564. — Stowe.
STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced
into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have
had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to
337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com-
missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols
averaged in the year —
1780 - j663 13 6 1 1795 - £7\ 8 6 1 1810 - ^£67 16 3 I 1825 . jEgO 0 8
1785 . - 68 6 6 1800 - - 66 3 3 1815 - - 58 13 9 1830 • - 89 15 7
1790 - 71 2 6 I 1805 - 58 14 0 1 1820 - 68 12 0 1 1840 - 89 17 6
See Public Debt.
STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher ; they obtained the name
of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch
or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su-
preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected
the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this
sect is famous for. — Stanley.
STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone
bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge
exists at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges.
The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone
china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues
was manufacUired by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776.
Stone paper was made in 1796.
STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity.
Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambroslus*
in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a. d!
544
THE world's progress.
[8TO
476. — Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monument of Am-
brosius, a. d. 600. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in
which the Druids oflSciated. — Dr. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet-
ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis-
tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets.
STORMS. The following are 'among the best authenticated and naost memo-
rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944.
One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming
from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 600 houses
fell, October 6, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais,
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against
the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed.
It thundered 15 davs successively, with tem-
pests of rain ana wind, a.d. 12^.
A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash
Eassed through a chamber where Edward
and his queen were conversing, did them
no damage, but killed two of their attsnd-
ants: 1285. — Hoveden.
A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in
France, which fell on the army of Edward
III., then on its march. The hail was so
large that the army and horses suffered
very much, and Edward was obliged to
conclude a peace, 1339.— ilfa«. Paris.
When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe-
mia, on setting foot on shore an awful
storm arose, and her ship and a number
of others were dashed to pieces in the har-
bor, Jan. 13S2.— Holinshed.
Richard's second queen also brought a storm
with her to the English coasts, in which
the king's baggage was lost, and many
ships cast away, 1389.— /c?ew.
A hurricane throughout Europe, which did
very considerable damage ; more remark-
ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the
day that Cromwell died.— Mortimer.
A storm on the eastern coasts of England ;
200 colHers and coasters lost, with most of
their crews, 1696.
The storm called the ^^ Great Storm," one of
the most terrible that ever raged in Eng-
land. The devastation on land was im-
mense; and in the harbors, and on the
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives
was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703."
A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes,
it is said, perished upon the mountains, in
their march to attack Drontheim, a. d.
1719.
One in India, when many hundreds of ves-
sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen,
greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and
30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737.
A dreadful hurricane at the Havana ; many
public edifices and 4048 houses were de-
stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished,
Oct. 25, 1768.— Annual Register.
An awful storm in the north of England, in
which many vessels were destroyed, and
4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775.
At Suratj in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000
of the mhabitants, April 22, 1782.
One hundred and thirty-one villages and
farms laid waste in France, 1785.
A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the
Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept.
1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone,
104 vessels were lost.
At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred
vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828.
Awful hurricane on the western coast of
England, and in. Ireland. The storm raged
through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War-
wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li-
verpool, by the falling of buildings, and
100 were drowned in the neighborhood ;
the coast and harbors were covered with
wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels
lost being nearlv half a million sterling. In
Limerick, Gal way, Athlone, and other
places, more than 200 houses were blown
down, and as many more were burnt, the
wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer-
ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor-
hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan.
6-7j 1839.
Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275
houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct.
10-11, 1846,
Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug.
21, 1848.
STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German
stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of
• The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling. The number of per-
eons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in
ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve
men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees
were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed,
and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley. and the persons who were with him. The bi-
shop of Bmth and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. MuUi-
tudes of cattle were also lost ; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned.
lUG J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 545
the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port-
able braziers. See Chimneys.
JTRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, by Louis-
Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two oflft-
cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of
the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the
French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt,
by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France.
STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the
forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed
and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16,
1643.
STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized
by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Ahhe Lenglet.
It was revived by D'Udine about a. d. 1550 ; and is now exquisitely per-
formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in
England.
STYLE. The style \\^s altered by Augustus Ca3sar's ordering leap-year to be
but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c.
Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See
Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act
passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian,
1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year.
STYLE, ROYAL, of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and
Titles.
SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par-
ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the
war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of
England for the last time by James L, 1624, but they were contained in a
bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo-
reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution-
ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable
of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at
Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be
vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting
powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia,
Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to
the- amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips.
SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging
to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 1», Jan. 23, 1840 j repealed
Aug. .9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-.
SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics
from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the
crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of
June 12, 1701.
SUCCESSION, The WAR of. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by
the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and
unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French
prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain.
Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies
withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 to
1713. See Utrecht, Peace of.
SUGAR, Saccharum ojgicinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the
546 THE world's progress. [801.
ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander,
326 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the
juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was
produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. —
Encyclop, Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities,
1160. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy ; but not succeeding, the
Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's
History of Charles F.*
SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu-
ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1659,
though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years
sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson ; Mor-
timer. See Beet Root.
SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish
history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman
philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from
the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in-
stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, think-
ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to mak^common sewers, des-
troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of
illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church,
in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be
made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias-
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the
statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation
of land and goods.
A FEW OP THK MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C.
Suicide of gen. Pichegtu - April 7, 1804
Of marshal Berthier ♦ - June 1, 1815
Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815
Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov, 2, 1818
Of Chriatophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820
Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822
Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825
There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of
the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount
Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820,
into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the
furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount-
able passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could
not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree
being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should
be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi-
nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being
previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. *
SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and
given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the
Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vattier. It
• About the year 1138 the su^ar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence
to Madeira, andf finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar
was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII, Mr.
Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript
letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that
sir Eciward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, '' whiche is eighte
iwncc a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts, ,
•>f which nearly four millions were for home consumption ; and the duty amounted to about five
•niliionu and a "half sterling.
Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840
Of lord James Beresford - April 27, 1841
Of the earl of Munster - March 20. 1842
Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25, 1815
Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845
Of Hay don, the eminent painter
June 22, 1815
sup] dictionary of dates. 647
was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth
century of the Hegira.
SUMMATRA, Island op. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed
piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States
• frigate Potomac#ind 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832.
SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c.
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more
than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk ; and that she should
not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely,
450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among
the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the
dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which
was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be
left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ed-
ward in. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c.
SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about
529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun,
about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries,
and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought
into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system
was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga-
lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculae
were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed
by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened
the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its
motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma-
cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21,
1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length
taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779.
SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny ^ 1, 2. The first
erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided
into hours, 293 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 618.—
Abbe Lenglet.
SUNDAY, OR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di-
vine adoration was paid to the Sun, Among Christians it is called the
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that
day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the
sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews
on "the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance
was made by Constantine, a. d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans
prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Sunday Sports, au-
thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub-
lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy
and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary
cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by
the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Rapin,
Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780.
Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1860.
SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the
church as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made
head of the church of England, wAs established in 1534, when Henry Vni.
shook off* the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Our
kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con-
ferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and
848 THE world's progress. f 8WB
the ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others,
beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn.
SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made
a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions
the ambe^ the ancient instrument with which they redifted dislocated bones.
Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 600 ; Paulus ^gineta
in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century
sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was
confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the
illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England
surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries,
1613, at which period there were only thirteen in London.
SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen-
ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was
enacted that ''no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the
drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and
a new charter in 1800.
SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d.
316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The
garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ;
and 13 and 14 Charles IL, 1662.
SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China,
near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from
rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen-
sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait
is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times.
SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from
one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his
death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows
have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone,
700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present
at many of these sacrifices. On February 4. 1743, he saw a young and
beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children,
thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every
witness of the scene. — Holwell. The English government in India have dis-
couraged these sslf-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference
with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by
English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though
rarely, taken place.
SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d. 528. Introduced in judicial
proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by
fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 25. for the first off*ence ; for
the second oflfence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See
Oaths.
SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modem inhabi-
tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory
on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been
masters of the country.
Qylf reigns in Sweden - • - b.o. 57 I barbarians, falls upon the North of
During mis reign, Odin, sumamed the Europe, making vasts conquests . *•**
Divine, at the head of a swarm ot )
8WE J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
54»
SWEDEN, contmued.
Yn^e, founder of the family of the Yn-
lingars, reigns - - - b.o.
[The early history of the kingdom is
altogether involved in fables and ob-
scurity.]
32
Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro-
duces Christianity among his people,
about .... AD. 1000
Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike
people and invasions of other coun-
tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru-
gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168
Stockholm founded - - - 1260
Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular
form of government - - - 1279
The crown of Sweden, which had been
hereditary, is made elective ; and
Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek,
or the Foolish, king of Norway, is
elected - - - . . 1318
Waldemar lays Gothland waste - • 1361
The crown made elective - - 1320
Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365
Sweden united to the crown of Denmark
and Norway, under Margaret - 1394
University of Upsal founded - - 1476
Christian II., "the Nero of the North,"
massacres all the Swedish nobility, to
fix his despotism - - - 1520
The Swedes delivered from the Danish
yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523
He makes the crown hereditary, and
introduces the reformed religion - 1544
The titles of count and baron introduced
by Eric XIV. - - - - 1561
The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus,
between 1612 and - - - 1617
He is slain at Lutzen - - -1633
Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648
Abdication of Christina - - - 1654
Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657
Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660
Charles XII., " the madman of the
North," begins his reign
He makes himself absolute
the senate
-1699
abolishes
Battle • of Pultowa, where Charles is
defeated by the czar of Russia. See
Pultowa - ' - A.D. 1709
He escapes to Bender, where after three
years' protection, he is made prison-
er by the Turks - - .1713
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars,
and fighting numerous battles, he is
at length killed at the siege of Frede-
rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718
Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot-
ic government - - - . 1719
Royal Academy founded by Linn6, af-
terwards called Linnaeus - / - 1741
Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home,
who are beheaded - - - 1756
Despotism re-established « - 1772
Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772
Assassination of Gustavus III. by . cunt
Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he
expired the 29th - - - 1792
The regicide was dreadfully scourged
with whips of iron thongs three suc-
cessive days ; his right hand was cut
off, then his head, and his body im-
paled - - - May 18, 1792
Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go-
vernment assumed by his uncle, the
dukeofSudermania - March 13, 1809
Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of
Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809
Marshal Bemadotte, the prince of Ponte
Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of
Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810
Gustavus IV. arrived in London,
Nov. 12, 1810
Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo-
leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812
Alliance with England - July 12, 1812
Sweden joins the grand alliance against
Napoleon - - March 13, 1813
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea-
ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814
Bemadotte ascends the throne of Swe-
den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 1818
Treaty of navigation between Great
Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826
\ 825 Regnard Lobrock.
* • * Reigns uncertain.]
966 feric, the Victor.
994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong.
1026 Edmund Jacobson.
1035 Edmund, or Amand III.
IWl Haquin.
1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel.
1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother.
1064 Halstan.
1080 PhiUp.
1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery.
1130 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths.
1133 Magnus L ; assassinated in Scania.
1144 Suercher II.
1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels.
1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca-
nute, who reigns.
1168 Canute, son of Eric X.
1192 Suercher III., son of Charles ; killed in
battle.
1211 Eric XI.
1220 John I.
KINGS OP SWEDEN.
1223 Eric XIL
1250 Waldemar.
1276 Magnus II.
1290 Birger II.
1318 Magnus III.: dethroned by his subjects
1365 Albert.
1397 Margaret.
1411 EricXIIL; abdicated.
1441 Christopher.
1448 Charles VIIL
1458 Christian I.
1497 John IL
1520 Christian H.
1528 Gustavus I., Vasa.
1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison.
1569 John III.
1592 Sigismond I., king of Poland.
1606 Charles IX.
1611 Gustavus Adolphus H.
1632 Christina ; resigned her crown to
1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of DeuZ'
Ponts.
1660 Chafles XI.
5^0
THE WOELD'S progress.
[awo
1771 Gustavus HI., Adolphus.
1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV.
1809 Charles XIII.
1818 Charles John XIV., Beruadotte, Feb. 6.
1844 Oscar, his son, March 8.
SWEDEN, continued.
1699 Charles xn. ; killed at the siege of
Frederickshall.
1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her
husband was elected.
1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel.
1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein.
SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec-
centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the New
Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es-
tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man, of
the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and
ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its
proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life.
His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760,
but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside-
rable number of respectable advocates in the United States.
SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered
by Julius Csesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans.
Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz
was peopled by the Cirabrians, who, leaving their original habitation in
Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marias ;
after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given
name to the whole confederacy.
The Helvetians converted to Christian-
ity by Irish missionaries
Helvetia ravaged by the Huns
Becomes subject to Germany
Fribourg built by Berthold IV.
Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions
the memorable revolt under the pa-
triot William Tell.
Swiss independence - Nov. 7,
A malignant fever carries off, in the can-
ton of Basle, 1 1,000 souls
Form of government made perpetual
Lucema joins the confederacy
The canton of Zurich joms, and be-
comes head of the league
Berne, Claris, and Zug join
The Grisons league (see Caddee)
Second league of the Grisons
The third league of the Grisons
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay
of France, under Louis XL
Union of Fribourg and Soleure
Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges
Swiss independence -
Schaff hausen joins the union
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged
by France and other powers
The Reformation begins at Basle ; the
bishop compelled to retire
The Grison leagues join the Swiss con-
federacy as allies
Appenzel joins the other cantons
Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts
Geneva by surprise, scales the walls,
and penetrates the town ; but in the
end IS defeated
[This circumstance gives rise to an an-
nual festival commemorative of thdir
escape from tyranny.]
612
909
1032
1179
1306
1307
1314
1315
1335
1350
1351
1400
1424
1436
1480
1481
1499
1501
1516
1544
1597
1602
Independence of Switzerland recognized
by the treaty of Westphalia (see
Westphalia, Peace of) - a. d. 1648
[From this period until the French Re-
volution the canton enjoyed tranquil-
lity, disturbed only by the changes
arising out of their various constitu-
tions.]
Alliance with France - May 25, 1777
Domestic strife in Geneva, between the
aristocratic and democratic parties ;
France interferes - - - 1781
1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum
in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782
Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792
Helvetic confederation dissolved; its
subjugation by France - - 1798
The number of cantons increased to 19 ;
the federal government restored ; and
a lantlamman appointed by France,
May 12, 1802
Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate
from the republic • July 13, 1802
Switzerland joins France with 6,000
men - - - Aug. 24, 1811
The Allies entered Switzerland in the
spring of 1814. The number of can*
tons increased to 22, and the indepen-
dence of Switzerland secured by the
treaty of Vienna • - - 1815
Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847
— passes resolves against the Sonder-
bund, and troops ofUri attack canton
Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847
Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov.
10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847
Neufchatel declares independence,
Feb. 29, 1848
SWORDS. Thev were formed of iron taken from a mountain hy the Chinese,
IB79 B. c. — ilniv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implements
syr] dictionaejt of dates. 561
of war. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad-
. sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at
an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel
swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The
Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated
artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew
Perraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in
1724.
Src AMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The
date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early.
In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary
queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she
planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland.
SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port
Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally
intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of
the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney.
The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it
has a legislative council, which was first held July 13, 182y. See New South
Wales; Convicts, <^c.
SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had
synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others
to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna-
gogues. There are in London six synagogues.
SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by
Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his
legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation
only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the
last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but
by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533.
SYNOD OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to
which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin,
and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618.
— Aitzema.
SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c.—Eusebius. 749 b. c— Univ. Hist.
Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was
slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthguake, with
many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed,
Aug. 6, 1757.
SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned
from Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved
in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires {which
see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after the battle
of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidse) founded the celebrated city
of Antioch.
Seleucus, sumamed Nicator, i. e. Con-
queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312
^ra of the SeleucidoB (tc^tcA see) - 312
Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death
ofAntigonus - - - - 301
City of Antioch foundi^d - - 299
Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in
love with his fathers' queen, Straton*
ice, he pines away nearly to death ;
but the secret being discovered, she
is divorced by the father and married
by the son." - - • B.C. 297
* This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of physic.
Erasistratus, the illustrious fatlun- of anatomy (jointly with HerophiJus), had observed, than wheo
502
THB WORLD'% PROGRESS.
[SYR
SYRIAy continued.
Battle of CyropsBdion • -b.o. 281
Seleucus is foully assassinated by Ce-
T&\inTiB.~Lenglet. . - - 280
Antiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes
the name of Soter, or Saviour - 275
Reign of Antiochus II., sumamed by the
Milesians Theos, or God ! - - 261
Seleucus 11, makes a treaty of alliance
with Smyrna and Magnesia* - - 243
Reign of Seleucus III., surnaraed Ce-
raunua, or Thunder - - - 226
Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus
in. is signally defeated - • 217
Antiochus' conquest of Judea - • 204
War with the Romans begins - - 192
Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes
the title of Theos-Epiphanes^ or the
Illustrious God ! - - - 175
He sends Appoloniua into Judea ; Jeru-
salem is taken ; the temple pillaged :
40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and
40.000 more sold as slaves - - 170
Cleopatra, the queen, murders her non
Seleucus with her own hand - 124
Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus,
whom she attempts to poison ; but he
compels his mother to swallow the
deadly draught herself - - 123
ReiCTi of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and
of Grypus at Antioch - - HI
Defeat ofTigranes by Pompey, who en-
ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus
Asiatichus, about - - - 65
Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970
[This conquest is made by the Fatimite
caliphs who rule in Egypt.]
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1057
The emirs of Aleppo revolt - -1068
The Crusades from Europe commence
(see article Crusades) • - 1095
[The Christians ultimately conquer that
part of Syria called the Holy Land. —
See Jerusalem.]
Noureddin conquers Syria - a.». 11^
Saladin puts an end to the power of the
Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171
The Tartars overrun all Syria - • 1259
Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who
expel the Crusaders - - - 1291
Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1400
Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517
After the conquest by Selim, Syria con-
tinued in possession of the Turks till
the invasion of Egypt by the French,
July 1, 1798
Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with
great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798
He' overruns the country, and takes Ga-
za and Jaffa ... - 1798
Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, 1799
Bonaparte returns to France from E-
gypt .... Aug. 23, 1799
Egypt is evacuated by the French army
Sept. 10, 1801
Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A ("re,
and overruns the whole of Syria, 1831-32
Ibraham Pacha, his son, defeats the ar-
my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832
[Numerous battles and conflicts follow
with various success.]
Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar-
my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839
The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria
and places itself at the disposal of
Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839
The Five Powers propose to the Porte
to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July
16, 1839
Death of the celebrated lady Hester
Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840
Treaty of London (not signed by offend-
ed France) - - - July 15, 1840
Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, 1840
Fall of Beyrout (see Bet/rout) Oct. 10 1840
Fall of Acre (see Acre) • Nov. 3, 1840
After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus-
tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pachalic of Egypt
hereditary 'n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish
fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at
London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This
result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its continu-
ance among the great powers of Europe.
ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame,
his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty.
On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which
was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished
under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, "is the object of his love?" '■^My wife^"
answered the physician. "Then resign her to him," said the king. " But if," said Erasistratus
' it were i\\equ^en he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idoTof your affections to another?'
'Yes," replied Seleucus, "I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to save
my son's life," ^'Then be at r- " " -" -— --j ">-— ^.-- ....--. -^ i.;_ i_..- :_ a._-
" it were \he queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idoTof your affections to another?'
.. ,r-_,. — 1.-J ci tLT ^oui(j readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to save
: ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his love is Stra
lonice !"~Bioj'. Diet.
* This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oxford. I
was presented to Oxfota by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II.
THR ] DICTIONARY OF DAT£S. 6Bt
T.
TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Olaheite.
TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies under
sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French
army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani,
July 27 and 28, 1809.
TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality
of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. Th«
one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second
century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were
collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimon-
ides in the twelfth century.
TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of
Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul-
tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in. a large iron cage, the fate the latter
had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed
his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403. — Chalcon-
duo's Hist. Turk.
TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in-
troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising
orange- trees, It was discontinued imtil about 1719, when ananas were first
brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden-
ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq.
TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence
its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands.
— Guicciardhii. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in-
vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William
Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir
Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of
tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early
instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also
in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry.
TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum supported
against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is
greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. c.
281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their
ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri-
soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome.
TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar
race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians.
It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per-
manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and
the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The
first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis
Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all
Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it
was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered
Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and
founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia,
till the close of the eighteenth century.
TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names,
24
554 THE world's progress. [tea
in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century.
" In the raigne of king Edward the Third only three taverns were allowed
in London: one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, .and the other in Lombard-
street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The Boards Head, in Eastcheap, existed in
the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his
dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs.
Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff's merriment. — Shakspeare^
Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab-
lished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by
an act of Edward VI., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3
in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in
Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in
Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester,
3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Taverns were licensed in 1752.
FAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis-
lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver,
about 55Z. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes,
which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects
styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D' Eon's His-
toire des Finances, Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by
William L, 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as
in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till
the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British
colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act
repealed, 1766 : re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern-
ment, &c.
TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church,
beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee, O God. It
is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose,
about A. D. 390 ; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp
and solemnity on some liai)py event, such as a national thanksgiving for a
great victory or for a bounteous harvest.
TEA, First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from
Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from
thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India
Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715,
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de-
struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773,
and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war.
TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS.
1726. • lbs. 700,000
1766. • . 7,000,000
1792. - . 13,185,000
1800. - . 23,723,000
1805. - lbs. 24,133,000 I 1825. - lbs. 27.803,661
1810. . - 25,414,000 I 1830. - - 30,544,40
1815. . - 26,368,000 1835. - - 44,360,59
1820. - - 25,662,474 j 1840. - - 38,068,55
In England,, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,000Z. annually
Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are ever;
year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons
1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng
land, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Grea
Britain is 30,000.000.— Evidence in the House of Commons, 1830. The firp
tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the Eas
India Company, Aug. J.9, 1834. The value of teas imported into the Unit^e'
States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was ^4,278,463 ; while that of coffe
was 89,102,872.
cem] dictionary of dates. 55$
rEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, about 1768.
The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the
first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor-
thumberland at Sion.
TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in-
struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsics,
because the signals* were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the
moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when
the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a
telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684.
M. Araontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about
this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful
purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French.
Two erected over the admiralty-oflice, London, 1796. The Semaphore was
erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously-
concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the
combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular
words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegraph.
TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571.
Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscoi)es ex-
actly, and yet neither were made till one Me tins, at Alkamaer, and Jansen,
of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac-
cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated
their invention by its description, and made three in successiop, one of
which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's
moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and
were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by
Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by
More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa-
tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000/. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope,
made 1789 — 1795, is superior : it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia-
meter, 8^ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See
Herschel Telescope.
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that
the first ^-reat public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this
country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the
most prominent of th(i first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt
of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The
exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total
abs'tinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general
habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various
names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from
various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with
spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent
in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the
Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has
administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his
countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Grer-
many there were 800 temperance societies in 1846.
TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in
A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous
in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup-
pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon
other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged,
and it sutf t^d great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France
5^ THE world's progress. [ TEW
in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed
in England, and finally in 1340.
TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house
of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased
by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are
called the Inner and Middle Temple.
TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusehius.
The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus.
The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUonius. For tem-
ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012
B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by
Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a \ .
70. — ^The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built
of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 b.c.
A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmaeonidae, about 513 b. c. —
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544
b. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it,
employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260. — The Temple-of
Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed W; th
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded
from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c,
is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — ^The heathen
temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the
Great, a.d. 331. See HeatJien Temples.
TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char-
ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetangp
river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the
Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent
contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North
Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State,
1796. Population in 1790, 35,691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in
1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves.
TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili-
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of
the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation,
&c., was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828.
TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri
made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They
were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite numbef made
prisoners, 101 b. c. See Cimbri.
TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy
Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in
the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian
army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III., a. d. 1191. See
Prussia, &c.
FEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over
the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son,
were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London,
where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being,
as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after-
wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1476, by the French king,
Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses
of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses.
the] dictionary of dates. 557
rEXAS, One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran-
cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction
with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re-
public— an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis-
agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrants
from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indepen-
dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican
president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured tho
independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th"),
after active opposition with reference to the exckision of slavery, Feb. 20,
1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an-
nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.]
THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication
between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most
extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was
begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from tlie shaft the first irruption
took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen
perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width
is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath,
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the
bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot
passengers, March 25, 1843.
THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a
nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most
properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called
thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con-
quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland
by king Malcolm HI., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057.
THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. g., was the
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres
were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There
was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were
assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu-
vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by
Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England
was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of
Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before
that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad-
mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room, \s.
— Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frcci
Drury-lane; it runs thus: " By his Majestic, his company of Comedians at
the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov-
rovs Lievtenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The
play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened
in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States
^yas the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750 ; but all such exhibi-
tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company
acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in
New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia
soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New
York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c.
THEBES, The ancient celebrated city of TJiebais in Egypt, called also Heca-
tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to
Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles,
and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred
558 THE world's progress. [ THR
gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Canir
byses, king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal.
— Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called
Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Boeotia. See Bceotia. Thebes was
called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele-
brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by
the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Thitcydides.
THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death
at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal-
ly punished theft with death, if above 12^. value ; but the criminal could
redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp-
tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very
severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's
acts, 9 and 10 George IV.
IHEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. and
' they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject-
ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that
their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was
given by God to the Hebrews.
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando-
ver, founded 1808.
THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several
scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer,
A. D. 1609. — Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Fulgentio. Invent-
ed by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented
about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of
construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years
subsequently.
THERMOPYL.-*:, Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the
defile of Thermopyla3, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three
days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se-
cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who,
thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their
country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300
heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per-
sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and
insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with
their roj'al leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the
hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c. — Vossius de Grcec. Hist.
THESSALY. This country is muck celebrated in classical history, as being
the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king
of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from
whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all
Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their
origin, as the Achaeans, the uEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The
two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the
deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263.
See them severally.
THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and
Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it
so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 b. c. By-
zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Constantinople
was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet H., a.d. 1453.—
Priestley,
TIM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 669
THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use.
The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones
or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted
in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about
1732 ; Miekles, in 1776.
THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car-
thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No
less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken
prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of
Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es-
cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy; Polybius.
THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in tlie
first stages of torture by the' Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England
also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the
privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly
resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a
present by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it
on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out,
" Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing."
rnURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero
worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly
by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over
the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is
said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which
was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and
Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the EngUsh. Thursday, or Thors-day,
has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day.
I'fDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi-
donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon,
about 79 B. c. ; and Csesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic
War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler,
A. D. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved
for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove
universal gravitation, about 1683.
TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus-
sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri-
tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele-
vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July
19 following.
TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them,
and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry
IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the
suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in
France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist.
TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000
lokds, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand
on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship
consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres
in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per
annum. — Albmt. England imports about 800,000 loads of timber annually,
exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, fee, together with about 8,000,-
000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret.
660 THE world's progress. [tob
TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. c. Early au-
thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each
twelve inches long ; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in-
vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being a
great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses,
sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks,
Watches, &c.
TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100
years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them
commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin-
mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor-
mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par-
ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ;• a charter and various immuni-
ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the
stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall.
Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall
into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince,
1636. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest
sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany,
which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in
Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ;
in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons
of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of
400,000Z.
TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490
B. c. — Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they w^re
given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. " I will not put the
title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right
certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the-
ocracy."— Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law,
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786.
Ofia, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to
expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had
caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Butti's Eccles. Law. Tithes were
first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold,
A.D. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by
Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran
councils, 1215. — Rainaldi.
TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles
swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and "My liege"
conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred
upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty
Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIH.
had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last
were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I.
of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled
" Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacre4,"
or ** Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emi>erors of
Germany ; ihe first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France,
about 1463.
TOBACCO, Nicotiana^Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco,
a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago,
one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was
first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span-
top] dictionary of dates. 661
iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth,
1566, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake
are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured
only for exportation for some years. — Stowe's Chron. In 1584 a proclama-
tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast
against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. IM.
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II.
An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation
was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the
excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to
tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire-
land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased
in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England
^n 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen
millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached
to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is
grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'je
southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was 37,651, 122.
Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United
States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for
smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad
taste of this weed.
TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. i612. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re-
taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but m 1763 it was
ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse
in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April
14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was
once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814.
TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due ihQ honor and wisdom of the
first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The
dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup-
tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of
queen Anne's reign.
TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d.
1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound,
1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for
every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes
were used in 1663.
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods,
commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1346. The first granted to
the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cuningham^s Hist.
Taxes. '
TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so
called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on
foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol-
taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a
100^. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share-
holders, his share produced him 3000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,115,-
244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, Ti^^.— Haydn.
TOPLITZ. Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians
and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz,
August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a
considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz. being a triple
24*
562 THE world's progress. Ltoc
alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty of
Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year.
TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country.
It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was
used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in
England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1690.
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order
of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time
before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by GustaTTis III., 1786. It
yet continues in other countries.
TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be
derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col-
lector of tithes and taxes. — Encyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round-
heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us,
into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated
the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ;
while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe.
The name of Tory was given by the country party to tlie court party, com-
paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (which
see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par-
ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ;
and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our
revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough,
at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party,
while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs.
TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by
land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of
ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise
the siege. It surrendered, August 28, 1793, to the British admiral, lord
Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of
Louis XVII. , under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu-
tion of 1789. A convict took place between the English and French
forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated
by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised
towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British.
TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es-
tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto-
ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater-
nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to
the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours.
X)ULOUSE, Battle or. The final battle between the British Peninsular army
under lord Wellington and the Frencli— one of the most bloody that had
been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of
the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult,
whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight-
ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British
forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the
allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that
of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte
had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was
aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. -
TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin,
such as Asamius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar-
tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show
TOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563
their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tounier,
" to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility,
both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d.
890 ; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about
919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance
in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when the
taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the
count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused
the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1569. Tournaments were from
this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is
fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took
place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week ; many
of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour
being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes-
tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament.
TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria
by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge-
neral Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians
and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious,
May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French,
when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field-
pieces. May 6, 1794.
TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that
which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours,
and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We
are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as
well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10,
A. D. 732.
TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of
Shinar {Gemsis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at
Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow-
ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be
reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc-
tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English,
except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes.
These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing
towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above
the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these
productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet
high.
TOWER OF LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more
than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first
marked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and
completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls,
and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it,
and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re-
built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly
repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are
the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of
peculiar interest ; and hero were many executions of illustrious persons,
and many murders See England.
TOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is sui)poscd to be the most fierce and
bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter
564 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ TRA
of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects
fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless
slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower ;
his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461.
TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng-
land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against
the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve
and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and
fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships.
After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad-
mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed.
But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral
Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and
his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every
man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805.
TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first
tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the
first gained by ^schylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho-
cles, 470 B.C. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by
Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres.
TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor
Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at
Rome, was built in the large square called the Foruvi Romanum ; it is
140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the
emperor.
TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth
century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went
farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro-
longing life, A. D. 1483. — Henault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion
upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five
persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited
the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English
physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys.
Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri-
tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood.
TRANSPORTATION or FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were
ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment
for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England
is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara-
tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trani^
portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More
recently, the reverend Dn Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was
transported for forging a frank, (10^/. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first
. transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the
settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished
with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable .
by transportation for life.
TR ANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about
A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It
was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the
doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es-
tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation"
was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent
times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the
council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Caves Hist. Lit.
tre]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
565
TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart-
ment of Ome, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis-
cipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with
rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were
shipped by the French government at Painboeuf, Nov. 19, and were landed
from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established
themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford j but do not maintain
there the extreme rigor of their order.
TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage
English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money
there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license
for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. — Rapin.
TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise
water for the irrigation of the fields. The tread-mill lately introduced into
the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is
the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton
jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States.
TREASON. See Hio^h Treason. It was punished in En^and only by banish-
ment till after Henry I. — Bakefs Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward
in., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1696.
The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment
was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive.
Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason,
which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three
ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ;
and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so
declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350.
TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any
foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was
with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain,
1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of
Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following
forms an index to them. See ConvenUons ; Coalitions; Leagues^ &c.
Abo, peace of -
- 1743
Aix-la-Chapelle
. - 1668
Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of
- 1748
Akermann, peace of
- - 1826
Alt Radstadt
- 1706
America, peace with
- -1783
Amiens, peace of
- 18t)2
Armed Neutrality -
. -1800
Arras, treaty of
- 1435
Arras, ditto -
. - 1482
Augsburgh, league of -
- 1686
Baden, peace of
- - 1714
Barrier treaty
-1715
Basle, peace of
- - 1795
Bassein, India -
- 1802
Bayonne, treaty of -
- .1808
Belgium, treaty of London
-1&39
Belgrade, peace of -
- - 1739
Berlin, peace of
Berlin decree
-1742
• - 1806
Berlin convention
-1808
Breda, peace of
- - 16G7
Bretigny, peace of
-1360
Bucharest, treaty of
- - 1812
Cambray, league of -
-1508
Cambray, peace of
- -1529
Campo-Formio, treaty of
- 1797
Carlowitz, peace of
- -1699
Carlsbad, congress of
Cateau-Cambresis, peace oT
Chaumont, treaty of
Chunar, India
Cintra, convention bf -
Closterseven, convention of
Coalition, first, against France
Coalition, second, ditto
Coalition, third, ditto -
Coalition, fourtn, ditto
Coalition, fifth, ditto
Coalition, sixth, ditto
Concordat
Conflans, treaty of
Constantinople, peace of
Constantinople, treaty of
Copenhagen, peace of
Cressy
Drescfen
Family compact
Fontamebleau, peace of
Fontainebleau, treaty of
Fontainebleau, concordat al
Friedwald, treaty of
Fuessen, peace of
Ghent, pacification of
Ghent, peace o^ America)
Golden Bull
-1819
-1569
•1814
-1781
-1808
-1757
-1792
-1799
-1805
-1806
-1809
-1813
-1801
-1465
-1712
-1833
-1660
-1544
-1745
-1761
- 1679
- 1785
-1813
-1551
-1745
- 1576
•1814
-1356
566
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
[TEI
TREATIES, continued.
Grand Alliance
Greece, treaty of London
Hague, treaty of the -
Hague, treaty of the
Halle, treaty of
Hamburgh, peace of
Hanover treaty -
Holland, peace with
Holy Alliance -
Hubertsberg, peace of
Interim -
Kiel, treaty of
Laybach, congress of -
League
Leipsic, alliance of
Leoben, peace of
Lisbon, peace of
liOndon, treaty of (Greece)
London, convention of (Turkey)
Lubeck, peace of -
Luneville, peace of
Madrid, treaty of
Methuen treaty -
Milan decree
Munster, peace of
Nantes, edict of
Naumberg, treaty of
Nice, treaty of
Nimeguen, peace of
Noyon, treaty of
Nuremberg, treaty of -
Olivia, peace of
Paris, peace of (see Paris)
Paris, treaty of
Paris, peace of (Sweden)
Paris, capitulation of
Paris, treaty of •
Paris, peace of
Paris, treaty of -
Partition, first treaty
Partition, second treaty -
Passarowitz, peace of
Passau,- treaty of
Petersburgh, peace of
Petersburgh, treaty of -
Petersburgh, treaty of
Petersburgh, treaty of -
Peterswalden, convention of
Pilnitz, convention ^i' -
Poland, partition of -
Pragmatic Sanction
Pragmatic Sanction
Prague, peace of
Presburg, peace of
1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the
1829 Quadruple Alliance
1659 Radstadt, peace of -
1669 RadstadtjV congress of
1610 Ratisbon, peace of -
1762 Ratisbon, treaty of
1725 Religion, peace of -
1784 Rhine, Confederation of the
1815 Ryswick, peace of -
1763 St. Germam's, peace of
1548 St. Germain-en-Laye
1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain
1721 France - . - -
1576 Seville, peace of
1631 Siorcid, peace of -
1797 Smalcald, league of
1668 Spain, pacification of (London)
1829 Stettin, peace of
1840 Stockholm
1629 Stockholm, peace of
1801 Stockholm, treaty of
1526 Stockholm, treaty of
17a3 Temeswar, truce of
1807 Teschen, peace of -
1648 Teusin, peace of
1598 Tilsit, peace of
1554 Tolcntmo, treaty of
1518 Toplitz, treaty of -
1678 Triple Alliance -
1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague
1532 Troppau, congress of -
1660 Troyes, treaty of -
1763 Turkmauchay, peace of
1796 Ulm, peace of
1810 Utretht, union of
1814 Utrecht, peace of -
1814 i Valen^ay, treaty of
1815 I Verona, congress of
1817 Versailles, peace of
1698 Vienna, treaty of -
1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance
1718 Vienna, definitive peace
1552 Vienna, peace of
1762 Vienna, treaty of, March 23
1772 j Vienna, treaty of, May 31
1805 ! Vienna, treaty of, June 4
1810 Vossem, peace of
1813 Warsaw, treaty of -
1791 Warsaw, alliance of
1795 Westminster, peace of
1439 Westminster (with Holland)
1713 Westphalia, peace of
1653 Wilna, treaty of -
1805 Worms, edict of
Public goo'd, league for the - - 1464 ' Wurtzburg, treaty of
TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES.— Some of the most important:
Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779
Treaty of Parid (independence secured)
^ Sept. 3, 17a3
Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 1785
Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain
(Jay's) - - - • ^- 1''^^
Treaty with the Six Nations and other
Indian tribes . - - - 1794
Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and
Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795
Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by
J. Q. Adams) - - - - 1799
Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa-
trick Henry, &c. Sept. 30, 1800
1659
1718
1714
1797
1630
1806
1565
1806
1697
1570
1679
1795
1792
1613
1529
1834
1570
1630
1719
1724
1813
1664
1779
1595
1807
1793
1813
1717
1668
1820
1420
1828
1620
1579
1713
1813
1822
1783
1725
1731
1737
1809
1815
1815
1815
1673
1768
1683
1674
1716
1648
1561
1521
1610
Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe
and Pinckney— rejected by the Ame-
rican government - - - 1806
Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain,
pisned by J. Q. Adams, Gallatin, and
it. Clay, for the t « ited States, clos-
ing the " war of 1812,>' tut leaving
the original dispute much as before - 1814
Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 1S15
Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero-
kees 1816
Treaty with the republic of Colombia • 1^
Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - 1935
Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify-
ing American citizens for spoliations
TRi]
DICTIONARY OP DATES:
667
Gushing : ratified by the senate
Jan. 16, 1845
Treaty of peace with Mexico, signed at
Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ;
ratified by the senate (with modifica-
tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame-
rican commissioners Sevier and Clif-
ford, and Mexican minister Rosas
May 30, 1848
Treaty with Great Britain, respecting
Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between
North and South America; signed
at Washington by Sir H. L, BuTwer
and J. M. Clayton • June, 1850
Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years.
Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years.
Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem,
800 years.
Banian^ in Hindostan, 3,000 years.
Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years,
[For proofs and details see the article re-
ferred to.]
TREATIES, continued.
during the war with Napoleon
Nov. 13, 1826
Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829
Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830
Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831
Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832
Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832
Treaty with Russia (commercial)
Dec. 18, 1832
Treaty with Great Britain, respecting
the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash-
ington by Lord Ash burton and Mr.
Webster ; ratified by the senate (39
to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842
Treaty with China, negotiated by C.
TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al-
manac for 1838, p. 102, are,
The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland,
700 years.
(Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500
years.)
Oak on estate of James Wads worth, Gene-
seo, New York, 500 years.
Yetr trees at Fountain's Abbey, England,
1,200 years; and in Scotland, said to be
2,500 years.
TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic
church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli-
citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church.
The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup-
tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last
council was held.
TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there
is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at
Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a
list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of
one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name
and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips.
TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tridurii Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first
chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 B.C., at the
time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa-
cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was
soon after raised to five, and 37 j^ears after to ten, which remained fixed.
Their office was annual, and as i\\Q first had been created on the 4th of the
ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election.
TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken
from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it
from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the
line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom
the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three
Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng-
land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes
occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies.
TRINITY A^D TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by
all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophilus,
bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used
the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His
Defeiice of Christi/niily was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Watkins.
668 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. [ TRO
An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix
de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti-
tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 15&. An act to exempt from penal-
ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in
1813.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between
the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the
Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known
as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668.
TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after
they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great
magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two
sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled
the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs,
accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation.
TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state
with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde-
pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their different
pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate,
B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the
expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi-
rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through
whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his
colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in
Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See
Ro7)ie.
TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century,
and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by
several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout
Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in
their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the
troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry.
TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and
more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came
hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the
daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus
built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in
succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes-
sor, converted it into Ilium.
Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- i War of Hercules and Laodemon b.o. 1224
noi'.— Blair ■ • B.C. 1546 Reign of Priam or Podarces - - 1224
Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris,
Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the
the city of Dardania - - 1480 , sacking of Troy.— flower's Iliad,
Reign of Ericthonius - - - 1449
Reign of Troas, from whom the peo-
ple are called Trojans - - 1374
The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 , ,
Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - - 1314 i the llth of .June, i. e. 23d of the
Rei»n of Laomedon - - - 1260 , month Thargelion.— Par/an Mar-
Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ; He- bles. 408 years before the first
sione delivered from the sea-monster. | Olympiad. — ApoUodorus - -1184
—Blair J Usher - - - 1225 ' iEneas arrives in Italy.— Lenglet - 1183
Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about
thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name,
and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe-
book xxiv., line %4, Pope^ edit. - 1204
Commencement of the invasion of the
Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193
Troy taken and burned in the night of
TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 669
dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was
nearly in ruins. — Priestley.
TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in
Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from
Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1096. It
was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used
to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es-
tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618.
TROYES, Treaty op, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby il
was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles
VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should
inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French wore driven from Troyes by
the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was
finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814.
TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum-
pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the
time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were tlie signals of primitive wars. —
Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the
Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time
of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by
Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Pliilosophically explained by
Moreland, 1671.
TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tic-
isco, or Tlw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day.
Tuesday, in Latin Dies Mariis, was called the third day among the Jews.
See Week Days.
rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by
Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con-
tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the
scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly
those of 1789 and 1848.
TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always
been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com-
merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of
Alcmaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold
for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy,
sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant
and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was
carried to England from America, about 1663.
TUNBRIDGE- WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by
Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage
of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its
waters, a. d. 1606.
TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The
territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and
were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 b. c.
Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African king»
till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was
expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under
Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when
10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was
first appointed in 1670. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey
refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656.
67C
THE world's progress.
[tub
TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of two
parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The
sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen.
These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king
of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color,
to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar.
TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated
their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians
and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont sun*endered
to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when, they restor-
ed it to the king of Sardinia.
TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by
reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they
became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of
many races of men.
Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca
(see Mecca) - - - ad. .571
His imposture commenced (see Maho-
metanism) .... 604
The Koran written (see Koran') - 610
Flight to Medina (see Medina) ■ 6-22
JEra. of the Hegira (see Ilegira) - 022
Death of Mahomet . - - 631
Holy wars begin (see Crusades) • 1095
The Turkish empire first formed under
Othman at Bythinia - - - 1298
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and
take Adrianople - - - 1360
Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a
guard composed of Christian slaves
bred Mahometans - - - 1362
Bajazetl. overruns the provinces of the
Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq.
He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is
at length taken by Tamerlane (see
Tamerlane) .... 1403
The Turks invading Hungary, are re-
pelled by Huniades - - - 1450
Constantinople taken by the Turks un-
der Mahomet H., which ends the
Eastern Roman empire - - 1453
Greece made subject to the Mahome-
tans (see Greece) • - - 1458
The Turks penetrate into Italy, and
take Otranto, which diffuses terror
throughout Europe • - - 1480
Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja-
nizaries ; he murders his father, bro-
thers, and their sons - - - 1512
He takes the islands of the Archipclasro
from the Christians - - ~ - 1514
He overruns Syria - - - 1515
Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516
Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521
Rhodes taken from the knights of St.
John, who go to Malta - - 1522
Solyman II., with 250,000 men, is repuls-
ed before Vienna - - - 1529
Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an
end to the fears of Europe from Turk-
ish power (see Lepanto) - - 1571
Amurath II. ascends the throne ; stran-
gles his five brothers ■ • • 1574
[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians
during this reign]
The Turks driven out of Persia by the
famous Schah Abbas - - A. d. 1585
Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - - 1595
GreaX fire in Constantinople - - 1606
Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles
his father and four brothers - - 1624
The Turks defeat the Persians, and take
the city of Bagdad - - - 1639
The island of Candia, or Crete, taken
after a 25 years' siege - - 1669
Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but
relieved by John of Poland - - 1683
Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687
Peace of Carloviiz ■ - -1699
Mustapha III. deposed - - - 1703
The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715
Belgrade taken from Austria; and Rus-
sia relinquishes Azoff - - 1739
Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ;
the English and Russian fleets defeat
the Turkish .... 1770
The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783
[This ends the disastrous war with Rus-
sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the
Turks having lost more than 200,000
men. — Ashe.]
War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1800
Passage and repassage of the Darda-
nelles effected by the British fleet, but
with great loss (see Dardanelles)
Feb. 19, 1807
The sultan Selim is deposed and mur-
dered, and Mustapha IV. called to
the throne - - May 29, lOOT
Treaty of Bucharest (which see) May
28, ■ 812
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re-
turning from Mecca, destroyed by a
pestilential wind in the deserts of
Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812
Subjection of the Wachabees - - 1819
Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares
himself independent - - -1820
Insurrection ofMoldavia and Wallachia
March 6, 1821
The Greek Patriarch put to death at
Constantinople - - April 23, 182L
TUR J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
571
TURKEY, Continue i.
Horrible massa:re at Scio; the most
dreadful in modern history (see note
to Greece) - - - April 23, 1822
Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824
New Mahometan army announced to be
organized - - - May 29, 1826
Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con-
stantinople - - - June 14, 1826
Firman of the s jLtan abolishing the Ja-
nizaries . - - . 1S26
Fire at Consta ttmople ; 6000 houses re-
duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826
Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet
destroyed by the fleets of England,
France, and Russia (see Navarino)
Oct. 20. 1827
Banishment of 132 French, 120 English,
and 85 Russian settlers, from the
Turkish empire - January 5, 1828
War with Russia - - April 26, 1828
The emperor Nicholas takes the field
against the Turks - May 20, 1828
The Russian emperor arrives before
Varna - - - - Aug. 5, 1823
Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828
Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828
The sultan leaves his capital for the
camp, bearing wiih him the sacred
standard - - • Sept. 26, 1828
Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. I, 1828
Sui render of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828
Russians retreat from before Schumla,
October 16, 1828
Surrender of the castle of the Morea to
the French - - - Oct. 30, 1828
Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians
Nov. 10, 1828
Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa
near Schumla - - June 11, 1829
Adrianople is entered by the Russian
troops . - - Aug. 20, 1829
Armistice between the Russian and
Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1849
Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1829
Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 1830
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa-
cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832
He defeats the army of fl. e sultan in Sy-
ria, with great loss - - Ji'Jy3(). 18.'i2
A series of successes brings the ar ny of
Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues
of Constantinople, and the sultan has
recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833
A Russian force enters the Turkish ca-
pital ... - April 3, 18:33
Treaty with Russia, ofllensivc ^nd de-
fensive - - . July S, 1833
Office of grand vizier abolished by the
sultan - - - March 30, 1838
Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848
Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849
1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I.
1325 Orcham, his youngest son.
1359 Amurath I., his son ; assassinated.
1388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison.
1397 Isa Belis; killed by his brother.
1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother.
1410 Musa; strangled by his brother.
1413 Mahomet I. ;' succeeded by his son.
1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son.
1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his
two sons.
1481 Co -tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by
his father.
1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of
his brother.
1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son.
1520 Solyman, the Magnificent.
1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son.
1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son.
1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son.
1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son.
1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother.
1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew,
1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries,
TURKISH EMPERORS,
and his uncle restored.
1622 Mustapha I. • again deposed and suc-
ceeded by his grandson.
1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother.
1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries,
succeeded by his son.
1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by
his brother.
1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bro-
ther.
1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew.
1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet
IV,, deposed and succeeded by hif*
brother.
1703 Achmet III. ; deposed.
1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother.
1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother.
1757 Mustapha HI. ; succeeded by his bro-
ther.
1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV.
1789 Selim III.
1807 Mustapha IV.
1803 Mah. Khan II.
1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27.
TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a. d. 1524, and
to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent-
ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari-
0U3 particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives
neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond
controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met
with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be-
ing larger do not differ from ours.— Smytk.
TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom
. articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious vases^
Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8
began at Leghorn - - Sept, 2, 1847
Grand-duke grants a national militia.
The grand-duke granted a liberal con-
stitution ... - Feb. 1848
Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848
The grand-duke flees from Florence
872 THE WORLD^S PB OGRESS. f TYR
enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of
the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for
turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and
in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war
are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces of
oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei.
TURNPIICES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other-
wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663. —
Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous.
IIJSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came
into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March
1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his
dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tie title of king
of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after-
wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ;
but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grand- iuke Leopold II.
(cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824.
The chambers meet.
Provisional government proclaimed,
Feb. 9, 1849
Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus-
can troops - - - May 10, 1849
The grand-duke re-enters Florence and
resumes his authority - .July 27, 1849
TWELFTH-DAY. The churcli-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation
of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king
and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on
the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece
of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as
king.
TTLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to
the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of
one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suflS-
cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence),
the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000
men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where
the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and
again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the
mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of
the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader
awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and tiiej dis-
persed, 1381.
TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built
1267 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu-
chadnezzar, 672 B. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed
to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken
by Alexander with much diflficulty, and only after he had joined the island
to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c.
— Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes
were the tiege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by
Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the
flames. — Phillips.
ITRE, Era of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy-
perberetaeus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era,
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub-
UHl]
DICTIONARY OP DATES. 67JI
tract 124 ; and ii* the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 126, and
the remainder will be the year before Christ.
U.
UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread throuffh Ger-
many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to
be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540.
UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and
Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the w^hole country (thq bor-
ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the
treaty of Partition in 1795.
ULM, Peace of, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from
it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulni was taken by the French in 1776. Great
battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under gen-
eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic-
tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower
of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the
confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date.
UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to
carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel-
las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel-
las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who
visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw. a great prince
of that country returning from a nipsque, preceded by some hundreds of
soldiers, and that he and each of the'^princes of his numerous family caused
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan-
tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said
that the first person wlio used an umbrella in the streets of London was
the benevolent Jonas Han way, who died in 1786.*
UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their
feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole
body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high
priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels
of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were
anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme
unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received
auction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as
extreme unction. See Anoiiiting.
UNIFORMS. Militar} uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man-
* For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe-
minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary
occasions — ^lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers.
The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in
fear of rain, borrowed the umbrellafrom Wilks's Coffee-house^ shall the next time be welcome to
the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life,
informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain ; but he could not
with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out ' Frenchman ! why don't you get u
coach V " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corpg^
were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther
information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and
gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained,
between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day
from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted
for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use iheire, and thcQ
the English. Now it is become a great trade in London."— acm? Monthly Magazine.
574 THE world's progress. [ Jlf)
ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards
adopted. For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Uniforms.
UNIFORMITY, Act of. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But
the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles
[T., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all
clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of
worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of
2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their
lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their
numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest.
UNION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united
by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March
24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604,
but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In
the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc-
cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith-
standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union
was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af-
terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia-
ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year.
UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos-
ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British
parliament; July 2, 1800.
UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and
worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the
Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned
man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip-
tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a
tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533,
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to
arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract
his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried
into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana-
tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation
of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States,
especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in-
fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and
eloquent writer. Dr. W. E. C banning, was a Unitarian,
UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British
realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new
imperial standard was lioisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub-
lin. See Union.
UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span-
ish yoke. a. d, 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange,
at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex-
cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne-
therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht,
Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23,
1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of
Orange as their stadtholdcr ; and formed the alliance ever since known as
the " Union of Utrecht." the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by
the appellation of the ' Seven United Provinces." Their independence was
acknowledpd in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was
crowned kmg bythe authority of Napoleon, June &, 1806. Louis abdicated.
VNl]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
575
July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed
Nov. 18, 1813, Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe*
Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium.
UNITED STATES of AMERfCA. See America; and the separate States,
Maine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of o;nevances, con-
sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7,
1766. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of
Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775.
See Wa?\ Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4,
1776. The title of " United Slates " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776.
Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris,
Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great
Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at
Glient, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty
of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also
Naval Battles ; also Admimstraiions, Exports, Noiional Debt, Treaties, Po-
pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States
are given more at large under that head in the Pabular Views in this
vol., page 122, et. seq.}
IJNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects
of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and
celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted
the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691,
he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies; and a sermon
which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity
of hell torments, involved this doctrine.
UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from
the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni-
versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and
Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho-
lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol-
lowing are the principal universities in Europe :
Aberdeen founded - • - 1494
Abo, Finland - - - - 1640
Aix, 1409; re-established • -1603
Alba Julia, Transylvania - - -1629
Altorf, Franconia - - - 1581
Andrew's, St., Scotland - - -1411
Angers, chiefly law - - - 1398
An[ou, 1349 ; enlarged - - - 1364
Avignon. France - - - 1388
Bamberg - • - - - 1585
Baale, Switzerland - - - 1458
Berlin 1812
Besancon, Burgundy - - - 1540
Bologna, Italy - - - - 423
Bruges, French Flanders - - 1665
Caen, Normandy - - - - 1417
Cambridge, began, 626 — according to
others, 900. See Cambridge.
Cambridge, New England, projected - 1630
Cologne, in Germany, re-founded - 1389
Compcstella, Spain - - - 1517
Coimbra, Portugal - - . - 1391
Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged - - 1539
Cordova, Spain - - . . 968
Cracow, Poland, 700 ; enlarged • • 1402
TMjon, France .... 1722
Dillingin, Swabia - - - - j.565
Dole, Burgundy .... 1426
Douay, French Fiander.s - • ir)»J2
T)res<len, S'xony - • -1694
Dublin 1591
Edinburch, founded by .Tames VI. - 1582
Erfurt, Thurinjiia ; enlarged - - 1390
Florence, Italy'; enlarged - - 1438
Frankfort-on-the-Oder - - - 1506
Fribourg, Germany - - - 1460
Geneva - - ... 1365
Glasgow ..... 1450
Gottin^en - - ... I7ai
Granada, Spain .... 1537
Gripswald - - . . . 1547
Groningen, Friesland - - . 1614
Halle, Saxony - . - . 1694
Heidelberg .... 1^46
Ingoldstadt, Bavaria . - . 1573
Jena, or Sala, Thuringia • . 1548
Kiel, Ilolstein - . . - 1665
King's College, London • - 1829
Koni^sberg, Prussia • - . 1644
Leipsic, Saxony - . . , 1409
Leyden, Holland - - . . 1575
Lima, in Peru .... I6I4
Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbra - 1391
London University - . . 1826
Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; enlarged - 1427
Lyons, France - . . . 830
Mechlin, Flanders • . . . 1440
Mentz ..... \^i
Monfpelier - - - . . 1198
Mo.scow - . . - . 175}
676 THE world's progress. [imt
ITNIYERSITIES, continued.
Mimster 1491
Naples ...... .1216
Orleans, France 1312
Oxford (see Oxford) - - - . 886
Paderbom 1592
Padua, Italy 1179
Palenza, la)9; removed to Salamanca 1249
Paris, 792 ; renovated - - - -1100
Parma 1599
Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361
Perpignan 1349
Perugja, Italy 1307
Petersburgh 1747
Pisa, 1339; enlarged - • -1552
Poictiers 1430
Prague 1348
Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - -1560
Rome Sapienza 1303
Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - - 1419
Salamanca 1240
Salerno 1233
Saltzburg 1623
Saragossa, Arragon ...... 1474
Seville 1531
Sienna 1387
Siguenza, Spain 1517
Sorbonne, Paris 1253
Strasburg 1538 ^
Toledo, Spain 1518
Treves, Germany .... 1473
Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - • • 1477
Turin 1405
Upsal, Sweden 1477
Utrecht, Holland 1636
Valence, Dauphin6 1475
Valencia in the thirteenth century.
Valladolid 1346
Venice 1592
Vienna 1236
Wirtemberg . - ... 1S02
Wittenberg ... . . R02
Wurtzburg • . - . 1403
UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges.
UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irvings chapel, in
London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophec}',
by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown To7igue." She
was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and
commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the
same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the
whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females
screaming, "\vhile Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to
the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period,
much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap-
sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but
as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi-
fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics.—
A7in. Register.
URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by
whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III.
The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious
discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is
asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the
planet Saturn ; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781.
USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given
for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 65. Sd. per
annum for 1001., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews.
Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest
of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished
and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza-
beth, 1670. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in-
terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne,
1714. See Interest.
UTRECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began
here (see United Provinces), a. d. 1579. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht,
which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of
Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis-
ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were
the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the
VAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 577
French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement
of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction
for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the
Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1796.
VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina^ discovered by Dr. Jenner. He
made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from
the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to
a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result
to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro-
duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of
vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,000Z. for the dis-
covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the
promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded
Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously
to 1816.
VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return
to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry
VIII., 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of
the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1635 ; and a third time convicted,
death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a
slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring
the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1671. The milder
statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 69 George III. The laws
against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as
respects the character of the offender.
VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and
was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in
1706, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the
French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im-
mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812.
VALENCIENNES, Siege of. This city was besieged from Maj;23 to July 14,
when the French garrison surrendered to tlu^ allies under the duke of York,
1793. It was retaken, together with Cond6, by the French, on capitulation,
the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz.
— 300 pieces of cannon, one million jjounds of gunpowder, eight millions
of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast
quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794.
VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII.
of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, on
agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De-
cember 8, 1813.
VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it is
called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of
the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient
date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr-
dom under Claudius II. at Rome, a. d. 271. It is said that on this day
the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom of
young people choosing Valentines or particular fViends on the feast of
Valentine.
VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions
of one Valentine, a priest^ who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric
25
578 THE wokld's progress. [yjBJr
forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and
goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called iEones, or Ages. He
taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms: to
these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob-
ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others
practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen-
tiousness.
VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman
under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North
Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command
it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 21, 1795. He compiled an
account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and
died in 1798.
VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Germnny and Gaul,
A. D. 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded
and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the
Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread
devastation wherever they appeared.
VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633.
It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was
deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle-
ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der-
went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804.
VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced
by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I.- Under the Nor-
man princes there wei-e vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold
with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day
the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where
the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sover-
eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who
belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In ELgland,
a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee.
Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May
1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818.
VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's,
said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448,
is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara-
tively moderate. See Libraries, The phrase " thunders of the Vatican,"
was first used by Voltaire, 1748.
VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some
huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to
give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep-
arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent i»
1830. See Colombia.
VENIy VJDI, F/C/.—" I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen-
tence formed the whole of Cassar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he
vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela,
Battle of.
VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made
a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 b. c. Marcellus con-
VKs
DICTIONARY OT DATES.
57^
(^nered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 b. c. The
islands on which the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital-
ian8, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar^
ouB nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the
morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build-
ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was
first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The repubhc was
not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The
ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by
pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the
discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave
it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter-
ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the
rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic,
1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the
whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice retui-ned
under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24,
1830.
Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi-
tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is
again in the power of Austria,
Aug. 22, 1M9
Venice declares herself an independent
republic - - Aug. 18, 1&48
Provisional government decrees an as-
sembly with full powers lobe elected
by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500
inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848
VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven-
triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of
their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi-
nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various
ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the
last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose
experimental philosophy, shdwn in this line, excited great wonder, about
1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever
appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822.
VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in
1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or
rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser-
vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan.
1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita,
to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook^s Voyages.
The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This
plaujc^ will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874.
VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu-
setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to
1764 : claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament
in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into
the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in
that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777.
Claims of New-York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state
admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85,589 j in 1810,
217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948.
V KRSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIIL, Versailles was only a
small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a
hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent
palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kingj>
of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it
to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building
680 THE world's progress. [vKt
to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tous let
glovres de Fraiue; and freely opened to the public.
VERSAILLES, Peace op. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri-
tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad-
mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive
treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain,
Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance oi" the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and
Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France.
Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch.
VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for
grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey
translated part of VirgiVs JEneid into blank verse, which is the first compo'^'
tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the
other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse
previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the
otta^va rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his
Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian
language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into
Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French
chansons. — Metropolitan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of
blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry.
VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre-
men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.—
Annual Register.
VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetua
fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mothei
of Romulus was one of the vestals, ^neas is supposed to have first choser
the Vestals. Numa, in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar-
quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the
expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the can
of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, fron
the age -of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number tha
presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins wen
selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses
The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c
The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves
tal Cornelia Maximiliana on. the same charge, a. d. 92. — Bibliotheque Uni
verselle.
VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when i
emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, anr
the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the burninj
lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction o
those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughou
Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried no
only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds wer
suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perishes
in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it; thi
eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovere(
in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since tha
time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned b;
fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation an
loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, an
a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the raoJ
dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. Th
▼iolent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, whe
VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581
Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed
over 6000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town oi
Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in,
and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been
several eruptions since.
VETOES OF THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can-
celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by
Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, five
times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the
navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds
of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, February
20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846.
French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846.
VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca-
pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city
in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I.
of England. 40,000Z., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the
Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the
siege with the loss of 70.000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in
1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who
totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the
city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by
the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12,
following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once
more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same
year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28,
1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary.
See next articles.
VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the
emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively
possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force
to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing
the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag-
matic Sanction, April 30, 1725.
VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king
of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua-
ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain
acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731.
VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the
emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed
to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ;
signed Nov. 18, 1738.
VIENNA, Peace of, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Grermany)
I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia,
and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united
to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere
to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia
October 14, 1809.
VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by
the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. The
treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one part,
and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to
582 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. f VUI
the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the
house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of- Vienna: Denmark cedes
Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg,
June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna,
June 8, 1815.
VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor
being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to
the vill or lordship; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat-
tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this
kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties
to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Stowe's Chron.
VtMEIRA, Battle of,, between the British, under sir Arthiir Wellesley, and
the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal
Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21,
1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under
his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si-
milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph-
ant career.
VINCENT'S, St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763,
the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English.
The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward
side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which 'they
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this
was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island
by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French
landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which
was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffrier
mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812.
VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea,
in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage,
vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are
aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta-
neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The
vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The
vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in
England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and
celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes,
and Wine*
VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds
of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus-
tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci-
tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they
might dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their
repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of
this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy.
It is coi\jectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our
Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking.
* The following is a tradition in relation to the vine :— When Adam planted the first vine, anil
left it, Satan approached it, and said, "Lovely plant! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking
three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood has
been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its
influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you become furious, and
rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reason ginks, and, like the
hog, you wallow in the mire.—Ashe.
VmJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 583
There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for
drinking till diluted.
VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns,
so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The
viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very
much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro-
duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin
was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lenglet. The
fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II.
V^lRGrlN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin
churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according
to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a
feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among tlie
Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to
Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says: "The Indian incarnate
god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race,
and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It
appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and
was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising
from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude.
The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda," — Sir William
Jones.
VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the
decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the
place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the
daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of
judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his
friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from
the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re-
quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast,
exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter ! I can give thee, to preserve thee
from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius
ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as-
tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they
immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him-
self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius,
another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed
himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to
death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c.
VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the *' Old Dominion,"
having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first
white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen
Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle-
ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his
attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa-
nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and
named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the
Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu-
tion; was the first to proclaim Charles IL on his restoration; established
the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in
the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Com-
wallis, at Yorktown, October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States
adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi-
dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe,
$84 Ttm world's progress. [ »o
Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and ; ^any
distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,622;
in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves.
VISIER OR VIZIER, .GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed
in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately
under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu-
tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into
his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in
his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles.
VITTORIA,* Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the
annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com-
manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar-
shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his
baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of
France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington tocjk. Jourd&n's
only remaining gun !
VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200
volcanoes, which have been active in mojiern times. The eruptions of
Mount Etna are recorded as early as 784 b. c. by authentic historians. See
Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius.
The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac-
count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783. see Iceland. In Mexico,
a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height
by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro
broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red
water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared
in one of the Azore islands. May 1, 1808.
VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of
the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their largo
army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans,
raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers.
Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount,
it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun-
teers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the
United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war. Congress authorized
the enlistment of 60,000 volunteers. A much, larger number responded,
but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled.
VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order
of Necho, pharoah of Egypt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from
Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good
Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along
the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of
about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the
world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is-
land in a skirmish) in 1619-20. The era of voyages of discovery was
the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumntivigatoi-s, and NoTiX- Weaf
Passage.
W.
WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first
fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers of
houses, had not more than Sd. per day (about 9rf. of our money) ; and their
Year.
s. d.
Year.
s. d.
In 1350
per diem.
0 1
In 1688
per diem.
0 8
In 1460
ditto
0 2
In 1716
ditto
0 9
In 1568
ditto
0 4
In 1740
ditto
0 10
In 1632
ditto
0 6
In 1760
ditto
1 0
WAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 585
servants, 1 j^d. — Vmer^s Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 144i, the waf es
of a bailiff of husbandry was 235. 4id. per annum, and clothing of the price
of 65. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 205., clothing
45. ; common servant of husbandry, 16s., clothing 40d. ; woman-servant, 10s.,
clothing 45. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages,
only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a fVee mason, master carpenter,
rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner,
was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take Qd. a day, without meat and
drink ; or with meat and drink 4^. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate
Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The
following were the
WAGES OP HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Year. s. d.
In 1783 per diem. 1 4
In 1794 ditto 1 6
In 1800 ditto 2 0
In 1840 ditto 3 0
WAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the
latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The
slaughter on both sides wastireadful; 20,000 Austrians were taken i y the
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This
battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty
of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em-
peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia
to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of
Spain.
WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry
VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists
fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown,
seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the carl of Warwick es-
poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and
the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England.
This battle was fought December 31, 1460.
WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par-
ticular saint ; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and
was continued among the Saxons. — Whitaker. Women were hired among
the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carince. The
Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their
frieTids. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might
lie inactive.
WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth
century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope
Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies
of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops
were at tirst jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and
the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4.
One of the monks, tlie first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been as-
sassinated, tlie aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to
ma -ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at
the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the
whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued
with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the coun-
try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was?
the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman was constituted first inqui-
sitor-general, 1208
25*
586 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS [ WAN
WAXES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was
elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his
country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for
reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they
made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons
retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac-
cessible mountains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon-
quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I.
entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by
the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not
entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought
to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him
Erince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has
orne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England
by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain.
WALES, PRINCE or. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of
Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284, Im-
mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief-
tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his
arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn,^^ literally in English,
"This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king."
These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians
assert, to ^' Ich Die7i,'^ which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince
of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this
prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in
1307. — Myvyrian Arc/iaology. Hist. Wales. For another and very diff*erent
account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien^^ see the article under that
head.
WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the
cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II, of
Spain. On account of the duke's religious pjroscriptions, those countries
revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were
well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by
queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in
this part of England. — Pardo7i.
WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert,
and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned,
on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill
on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on
the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until
1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors
for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain.
WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per-
sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When
they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck
him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin-
ger *?" XJpoin which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in-
deed going ; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted,
and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every
hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he
returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered,
being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity
of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the
death and resurrection of Christ, — CalmeVs Hist, of the Bible.
war]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
587
WARS. War is called by Erasmus '' the malady of princes." ^ Scriptural wri-
ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain
3563 B. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed
into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c— Usher. He is supposed
by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded
in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193—1184 b. c. The longest
siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the
Platseans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning
of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have
perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu-
man species as now inhabit our whole earth.
WARS, Civil, of Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great
Britain are the following :— That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons
against Henry HI., 1565 ; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400 ; of the
White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471.
The war between Richard III. and Henry VIL, 1485. The war against
Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender,
1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty-
rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion,
1798.
WARS, FoREiCxN, OF Grrat Britain. The wars in France, in which England
was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy
being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of
France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English
province, but w^as lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with
France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy,
Poictiers, and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the
reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It
was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests
of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years
of war as peace. See the countries respectively. Battles, &c.
FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQ,UEST.
r with Scotland
10G8
"' France,
1116
" Scotland,
1138
<' France,
1161
*' France,
1194
" France,
1201
" France,
1224
" France,
1294
Scotland,
1296
" Scotland,
1327
" France,
1339
■•* France,
1368
" France,
1422
" France,
1492
" France,
1512
" France,
1522
" Scotland,
1522
ce 1092
1118
1139
1186
1195
1216
1234
1299
1323
1328
1360
1420
1471
same year
1514
1527
1542
War with Scotland, 1542
" Scotland, 1547
" France, 1549
" France,
" Scotland,
" France,
" Spain,
" Spain,
" France,
" Holland, 1651
" Spain, 1655
" France, 1666
" Denmark, 1666
*• Holland, 1666
" Algiers. 1669
" Holland, 1672
" France, 1689
Peace.
1567
1557
1562
1588
1624
1627
1546
1550
1550
1559
1560
1564
16(M
1629
1629
1654
1660
1668
1668
1668
1671
1674
1697
The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, France,
and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of
Ryswick, Sept. 20,^1697. It concluded this last war.
THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN.
War of the Succession^ commenced May 4,
1702. Peace of Utrecht, March Kl, 1713.
War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con-
cluded 1721.
War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739.
Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, April 30, 1748.
War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed
also on April 30, 1748.
War ; the Seven years^ war, June 9, 1756.
Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763,
War with Spain, .Jan. 4, 1762. Qeneral
peace of Feb. 10, 1763.
586
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[ wah
WARS, Foreign, op Great Britain — continued.
War with the United States, July 14, 1774.
Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782.
War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of
Paris. Jan. 20, 1783,
War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed
same time, Jan 20, 1783.
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace
signed Sept. 2, 1783.
War of the Revolution^ Feb. 1, 1793. Peaca
of Amiens, March 27, 1802.
War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi-
nally closed, June 18, 1815.
War with the United States, June 18, 1812.
Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.
For the wars with India and China, see th:«e
countries respectively.
In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes
with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war,
and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in
1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the
Spanish Succession^ 62 millions ; in the Spanish war^ 54 millions ; in the
Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war^ 136 millions ; in the
war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the war against Bona-
parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years
(from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023
millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained
by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six
hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their
allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin-
sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the
inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced.
The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted
to one million two hundred thousand.
WAR, Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com-
menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended
by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost ^135,193,700.
WAR, The, of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain ;
First difficulty respecting the search of
American vessels - - - 1806
Chesapeake United States frigate fired
on 1807
Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809
United States frigate President, engag-
ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt
May 16, 1811
President Madison's war message to
congress - - - June 1, 1812
War declared - - - June 19, 1812
Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman-
der-in-chief
[See Battles and Naval Battles.]
The war opposed in New England, and
levies ot troops refused by Mass.,
Conn., and II. I.
Treaty of peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815
WAR against Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States,
1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels
and " conquered a peace," July 4,
WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of
Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate
of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.]
American army of occupation, (3500>
under Gen. Taylor took post on the
Rio Grande opposite Matamoras,
March 28, 1846
First collision— a reconnoitring party
of 70 from American army under Col.
Thornton, fired upon and taken pri-
soners bv the Mexicans - April 24, 1846
Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at
Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126
wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and
355 Wounded - - May 8-9, 1846
Bill passed both houses of Congress U.
* S., declaring that war with Mexico
already existed, by act of that power,
and authorizing 50.000 volunteers
May 12, 1816
Monterey taken by Com. Sloat, July 6, 1847
Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney
Aug. 18. 1846
Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded
by Com. Stockton - - Au^. 19, !81b'
Battle of Montei-ey, 4700 Americans
under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under
Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A-
merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded,
Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1846
WAR ]
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
589
WAR WITH MEXICO, continued.
Stevenson's California regiment sailed
from New-York - - Sept. 26, 18i6
Tobasco bombarded by com. Perry,
Oct. 25, 1846
Tarapico occupied by com. Connor,
Nov. 14, 1846
Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun-
teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari-
to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150
wounded. American loss 6 wounded.
Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted "
Californians, at San Gabriel, &c.
Jan. 8, 1847
Major Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major
Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners
by the Mexicans at Encarnacion,
Jan. 23, 1847
Revolt against Americans in N. Mex-
ico, American governor Bent and five
others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847
1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans
defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847
Battle of Buena Vista : Americans 4759
mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor
and gen. Wool ; and Mexicans 22,000
under Santa Anna; latter defeated and
loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri-
can Joss 267 killed and 456 wounded,
Feb. 22-23, 1847
Battle of Sacramento ; American col.
Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000
Mexicans under Herridea, latter loss
300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri-
soners; American loss, 1 killed and 8
wounded - - - Feb. 28, 1847
Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott
and com. Perry: American loss 65
killed and wounded - March 29, 1847
Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter,
April 2, 1847
Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500
under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex-
icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals
and 3000 men, taken prisoners by
Scott; American loss 250, Mexican
350.
Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847
Battles of Contreras and Churubusco,
American gen. Smith drives the Mexi*
cans from these fortified posts towards
Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound-
ed 5 Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 1847
Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the
Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced
Sept. 7, 1847
Battle of Molino del Rey ; American
een. Worth carried the fortifications
defended by 14,000 Mexicans under
Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil-
led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000,
Sept. 8, 1847
Battle of Chepultepec, a height near
Mexico, carried by American gene-
rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow,
(under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862
Sept. 12-13, 1847
This was followed by the surrender of
the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847
Col. Childs with 400 men and 1800
sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at
Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans
to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847
Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex-
ico for protecting public property in
the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847
City of Huamantla captured by Ame-
rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa
Anna. American loss, 24 killed and
wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847
Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap-
tured by American frigate Congress,
and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847
A tax levied upon the states of Mexico,
and duties «fec. laid to the amount oi
about #3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847
Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler,
Feb. 18, 1848
Treaty of peace ratified at Q,ueretaro,
by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N.
Clifford, for the United States, and
the foreign Mexican minister, Signor
De la Rosa - - - May 30, 1848
American troops finally withdrawn
from the city of Mexico, • June 12, 1848
WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this
city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703.
It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the
empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles
to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex-
pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36
pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in
July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year.
It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article.
Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony
in August, 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813,
and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice-
roy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See
Poland.
WARSAW, Battles of. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle i^ith
the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow, the Russian general, after
the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all
ages and conditions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle precedirtg the
590 THE world's progress. [ \l AT
surrender was very bloody ; of 26.000 men, more than 10,000 were killed,
nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the
merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus-
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb.
20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fighting:, the city
capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of
the Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was
fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831.
WARSAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria
and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted
in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed
March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February
24, 1768.
WASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first
made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was
opened for the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late
war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the
President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the troops not
sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon
afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow-
ing. See United States.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad-
dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the
American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti-
tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ;
died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19,
1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848;
oration by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner-
stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849.
WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a.d.
1477; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch
about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by
Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first
who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small
table-clock, 1630. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in
1577. — Hume. Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so called) have
had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M^ Huy-
gens by the Dutc-:. Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker^ says that Dr.
Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have produced what
is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ;
as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the
double-balance watches presented to Charles IL, viz., " Rob. Hooke in-
ven. 1668. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented
by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved
1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him
the reward of 20,000/., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watcher
and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See
Clocks.
WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water
(as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the
original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — Stanleij. It is the
universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with
much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine
in summer. — Mada7ne Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed
WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591
with the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenglet. " Honest water is too weak
to bo a sinner ; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare.
WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time,
independently of the sunshine, were clepsydrce or water-clocks. These were
most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom ;
through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour ;
after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in-
vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi-
cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the
year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used; and
Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning
of a taper as a measure of time.
WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 655. The ancients
parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in-
vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet
Pliny mentions wheels turned by water.
WATER TOFANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poisor» so
freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aq^la tofana^ from
the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials.
She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on
being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people.
Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly
executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared
to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their hus-
bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden,
and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists
have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamation of the pope de-
scribed it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a
solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed
to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two
brothers; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt
alive. — Phillips.
WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and
the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the
French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the
British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon
attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num-
bers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about
nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver.
The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu-
cher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the. pursuit.
On both sides the carnage was immense; but that of the French was double
the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army,
and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three
great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication
followed. See Bonaparte and France.
WATER-SPOFP. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause,
the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl-
winds over the land.— />?-. Franklin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatz
mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and
many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and
many persons perished, July 18, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk, near Kil-
592 THE world's progress. [wkd
larney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, and destroyed
his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves-
tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4,
1831.
WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and
wax candles we^e esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China,
candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candleberry.
Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu-
lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing-
wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree,
Ligustrum lucidum, was brought from China before 1794.
WE. The common language of kings is 7ve, which plural style was begun with
king John, a. d. 1199. — Cokeys Instit. Before this time sovereigns used the
singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French
kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henault. It is now the style royal
of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu-
ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens.
WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of
property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the
poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the
country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances
of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinarj^ The mighti-
est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches
amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed.
— Athencsus. Csecilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600
oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin,
8 B. c. — Univ. Hist.
WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from
the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in
Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally
spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient
nations,. to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to
Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca-
pac. In most easteri: countries, the employment of weaving is still per-
formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd-
ridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious
women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, LAike
viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in CalmeVs
Dictionary, under the word Vestments.
WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where
they manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of
great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers,
linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches-
ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse-
cution, 1567.
WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this
ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the
superit r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France.
WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call-
ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given
to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards
corrupted to Wednesday. See next article.
WES] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593
WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews,
who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks,
the first the common one of seven days, the second of years, which was
seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was
the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon : —
Latin. English. Saxon. Presided over by
Dies Saturni, Saturday, Saterne's day, Satum.
Dies Solis, Sunday, Sun's day, Tlie sun.
Dies Luna?, Monday, Moon's day. The moon.
Dies Martis, Tuesday, Tiw's day, Mars.
Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, Woden's day, Mercury.
Dies .Tovis, Thursday, Thor's day, Jupiter.
Dies Veneris, Friday, Friga's day, Venus.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver
money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et seq. — Arunde-
lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the
lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was
originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, a d. 972. Stand-
ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole Kingdom of Eng-
land by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard L, 1197. A public weighing-
machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed
by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between
buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward II., 1309. — Stowe. The first statute,
directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIIL, 1532. —
Philosophical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of
3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa-
tor, as the standard of measure ; and the kilogramme, equal to 2.255 pounds
avoirdupois, as the standard of weight.
WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was
founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his
brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society
for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an
association excited considerable notice, arid among other names bestowed
upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley
went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians.
On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered
many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious
meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he
was united with Mr. WhRefield ; but differences arising on account of the
doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated
according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his
labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his
influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791.
WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he
made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th
and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively.
WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and
Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western
portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the
Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed
Augustulus, and assumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended
the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. See
Eastern Empire.
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the mirac»
lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been qaes-
594 THE world's progress. [win
tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the ^present
edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance
the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His-
torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the
sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church
becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward tlie Confessor, be-
tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope
Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of
the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent
and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward IL, Edward III.,
and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo-
nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles
were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483, The
west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard
III. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the
magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was
laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ;
and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560.
WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar-
chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and
here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit-
suntide very royally." Richard IL held his Christmas festival in 1397, when
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Slowe.
The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idem. Westmin-
ster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported
by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a
general repair in 1802.
WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax-
ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ;
and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of
Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of
conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to
the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed
king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned
in 1813.
WESTPHALIA, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between
France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against
France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was
first recognised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some
other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala-
tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and
the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc-
tober 24, 1648.
WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed
650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,— cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by
17,500 officers and seamen. " Commercial history furnishes no parallel to
this whaling fleet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' —
Speech of Mr. Grinnell.
V/HEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from
1790 to 1838, was 10,283,471 bushels,— average, 209,666 bushels per annum.
In 1845 the amount exported was valued at $5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350,644.
This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased
by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland.
WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took
WIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595
their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in th€
Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of
their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of
it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was
moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following
and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen.
They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in
London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Wkitefriars to
this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1246.
WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent,
before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch-
bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII, of
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the
court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion,
Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was
written : —
" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall,
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall.
More clung about the barge : fish under water
Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after.
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs,
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes;
For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd,
She had come by water, had she come by land."
In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet-
ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I.,
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall
Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a
chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829
and 1833.
WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to
commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles : in the pri-
mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear
white garments on Whitsunday, This feast is movable, and sometimes falls
in May and sometimes In June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after
Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday,- it is said to
have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called
Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre-
paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing
on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal eflfects of war and
other evils.
WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffe, a professor of divinity
in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the
English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho-
rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of
the church, in 1377. Wickliffe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's
son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res-
cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death Dec
31, 1384, in his 60th year.— Mortimer. '
WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it
feu Grecquois, because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was
first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Holio-
polls.— iVowv. Diet. See article Greek Pure.
696 THE world's progress. [win
WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper
styled the North Briton, published by John Wilkes, an alderman of London.
He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis-
tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a
use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the
earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower.
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ;
but he obtained Xl,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure
of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's
Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene
poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out-
lawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October
1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor ; but was over-
looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797.
WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See
Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There are
many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this
power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in
three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person
who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath-
ing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to En-
glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations
respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry
VIIL, 1541. — Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on
record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard XL, 1899. Edward the
Confessor made a will, 1066.
WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to
be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to
the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe
by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in
the crusades, — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and
Grermany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch-
man, in 1633; when one was erected near the Strand, in London.
WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi-
dent from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed
so early as the third century, if not before, though the fashion was not in-
troduced until it was done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were
used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In
England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ;
about 276,000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win-
dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to
defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William
in., 1695.
WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally
built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs
who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the
west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di-
rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel.
Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed
every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen-
ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to
this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV.
WJNES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abbe Lenglet. The art of
WIT J DICTIONARY OF DATES.
597
making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching
Noung, about 1998 b. c.— Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought
from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the
wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant.— fiTose^, xiv. 7. Our Saviour
changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — John ii. 3, 10.
" The conscious waters saw their God, and hlush'd."— Addison.
No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet.
Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists.— /</ew. Concerning the ac-
quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured
that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ;
but this Hquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered
by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in
A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention
of '' wine for the king " so early as 1249 ; and we are even sent to a much
earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price
was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes con-
demned for beir.g adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels
of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427.
—Slowe's Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on
June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed
April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons of all kinds of
wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4,306,528 gallons. In 1830
were imported 6,879,558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, were
imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home consumption.
—Pari. Bet.
WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg,
A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563.
The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Mortimer.
The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of
gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces
of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually
drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98
yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of
gold covers the whole 98 yards; and the thousandth part of a grain is above
one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy-
linder of silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so
j)erfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover
any appearance of the silver underneath, — Boyle.
V^IRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu-
lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reign-
ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed
by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau
made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg mar-
ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797.
This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The
elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1,
1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus-
sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king
granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848.
WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the
North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad-
mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30,945 :
chiefly emigrants from the northern and middle states.
WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced, by tha
598 THE world's progress. [wit
church of Rome ; and persons suspected of -the crime have been subjected
to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands of
cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were
drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did
not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re-
served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were bunit in Gene-
va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of
Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one
sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in
Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt
at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and
ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu:iition
of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany.
Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be-
witched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women
were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges
of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully
in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749.
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched,
and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were
burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — Ann. Reg, Five women were condemned to death by
the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802, — Idem.
WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked
laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which
death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the
public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted
declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy,
33 Henry VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James, -1603. Bar-
rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years
at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan
of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc,
Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand
were executed in England under the long parliament. Northamptonshire
and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any
other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in
1705, while *he Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five
others sevei. years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged
nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were
burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per-
sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I.
even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub-
lished his Dialogues of Dcemonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in
London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws
• All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his Dcbmonologie ; and parlia-
mput, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death was
iiinicled on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any
evil or wicked spirit— shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit— take up
•my (lead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor
oi^-e, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed,
pined, or lamed." This being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence ol
VI itch^'raft ; hence Shakspeare gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions
a place wherOj he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evil
spirits, and abjurin? witches became in con^'equence, for a century, a profitable employment to the
clergy of all denominations. Witch-finlers existed, too, as public officers* and, besides the public
executions, vjhich disgraced every assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular rft
fuiiilvnQxM.—PhUUps.
woo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599
against witchcraft had lain dofmant for many years, when an ignorant person,
attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Sur-
rey for the practice of witchcraft, they werel-epealed, 10 George II., 1736.—
Vinefs Abridgment.
WITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was
the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig-
nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A
witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means
to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman
conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament.
WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were
demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar,
A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward I.
issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng-
land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for mai.y centuries after
their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found
there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was
made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom
834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they
follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first
in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure
was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of
twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lnjcabas, that
is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche.
WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been
considered merely as ohjects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and
were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the
northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em-
pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought
with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards
females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the
polished nations of anti(]uity, and which ultimately led to the institution of
chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ;
and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's
first sight of Eve :
" He laid him down and slept — and from his side
A woman in her magic beauty rose ;
Dazzled and charmed, he called that woman 'bride.'
And his first sleep became his last repose.'^— jBesser, tran elated by Botcring.
The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that
state : Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus. Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes.
Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden,
Molifere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon.— W;m«7t; as she is, and
OS she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol-
lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman :
" Die when you will, you need not w6ar,
At heaven's court, a form more fair
Than beauty at your birth has gi'^en ;
Keep but the lips, the eyes we see,
The voice we hear, and you will be
An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert.
WOOD-CUTS, OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood.
The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, t^
Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the
article referred to. Biought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought
600 THE world's progress. [wok
to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., m 1789-1799; and
more recently by Cruikshank, and others.
WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com-
mittee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that
from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the
finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu-
facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the
emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men-
tioned in A. D. 1186, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of
it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This
was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331. —
RyTner's Fcsdera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of
English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited,
1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824.
WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in
all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also.
Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae-
sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be-
fore A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward
III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See
preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. —
Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England,
1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing.
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth
begun at Sedan, in France, under the i)atronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646.
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. AH persons obliged
to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for-
feit 6Z., 20 Charles IL, 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved
in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland,
11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly xjrohibited, ex-
cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged
by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715, Greater in Yorkshire in 1785,
than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers.
ftUANT.TY AND DECLARED VALUE OF CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL-
LOWING YEARS : —
Quantity.
Pieces -
Yards - -
Declared value
1800.
I,022,a38
4,213,677
je3,914,G6l
1825.
1,741,983
7,798,610
je6, 194,926
1830.
1,747,036
5,561,877
^£4,608,592
1840.
2,143,796
8,170,642
^5,921, 116
WORCESTER, Battle op, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army
and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A
large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate
Charles II., but Qromwell signally defeated them ; the streets of the city
were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed
or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his
crowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri-
soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September
3, 1651.
WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was
created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention the
year 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the
19fch of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was
created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile-
tus, about 640 b. c. The first geographical tableand map of the world was
iraR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601
made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c— Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagorai
and bis system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The mag:nitude of the earth cal-
culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated,
A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth
is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started
by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669.
WORMS, Diet of. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther
was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther
was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a
league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause,
that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer-
ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs
of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand,
six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre-
lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared,
April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions,
and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him
to seclude himself to save his life, wlfich he did for about ten months, and
his triumph was afterwards complete.
WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menfes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been
the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the
Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the
Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Grauls, 2112 b. c. — Us?ier. Religious
worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the
causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and
evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by
dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid,
and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens,
and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations,
whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant
states. — Sherlock.
WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the
period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de-
dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and
there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent-
ing them by any figures or images. Oar days of the week are named after
Saxon divinities— the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn.
Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their
great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be-
lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was
afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly
superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our
present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence
of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re-
markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood,
Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places
of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation :—
and 80 committta vow to the jjrotectton of
God. From Edirwurgh. the xii of August.
, ^ , 1560.
mendacion^ we ftraxfyou faiU not to pass " Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that ne!-
incontinent to the kyrk of Dunketd, and tak
doun the haiU images thereof and bring
furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op-
pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris^
and purge the kyrk of ail. kynd of monu-
ments ofidolatrye. And this ye faill not to
do, as ze will do us singular empleseur ;
20
" To our traistfriendisj the Lairds ofAm-
tilly and Kinvaid.
" Traist friends, after maist harty com-
ther the diisks, windocks, nor durris^ be on y
ways hurt or broken— —either glassin wark
or iron wark.
" Ar. ERaYix,
"Jambs Stswart
" RUTHVBN."
602
THE WpRLD's PROGRESS.
[WRi
WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its
name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in
which the inventor lived, and where manufiictures of worsted are still exten-
sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking
knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare.
WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a
few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard.
When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow-
bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder,
utterly regardless of the sufierers. — Phillips. The loss of merchant and
other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea,
was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a
year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were
totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss
varies ; but it is always many hundreds.
SOME OF THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS.
Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling
Castle, &i; PhoRniXjii: La Blanche,
42; Laurel, 28; Andromeda, 28;
Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ;
Barbadoes, 14 ; Came lean, H ; En-
deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ;
British vessels of war, all lost in the
same storm, in the West Indies, in
October, 1780
Of the Rouai George, capsized in Ports-
mouth harbor, England, when 1,000
persons perished - June 28, 1782
Of the steamer Home, from New York
to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837
Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull
to Dundee ; 38 persons drowned.
Owing to the courage of Grace Dar-
ling and her fether, 15 persons were
saved. See Forfarshire • Sept. 5, 1838
Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, and St.
Andrew^ packet ships, in a great gale
off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839
Of the Poland from New York to
Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840
Of the President steamer, from New
York to Liverpool, with fifty pas-
sengers on board; sailed on March
days afterwards, and has never since
been heard of - March 13, 1841
Of the Peacock, one of the United States
exploring expedition, at the mouth
of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid-
day and smooth water - July 18, 1841
Of the Missouri United States steam-
frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843
Of the United States schooner Shark,
wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846
Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship.
This stupendous vessel grounded m
Dundrum bay, on the east coast of
Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846
Of the United States sloop of war Bos-
ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846
Of the United States brig So^ners, cap-
sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39
drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846
Of the West India mail packet Tweed ;
about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847
Of the ship Oceaw^owarcA, of Boston,
burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost,
Aug. 24, 1848
Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run
down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134
lives lost - - June 27, 1810
See Fires, and Steam Vessels.
11, encountered a terrific storm two
It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu-
ally lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service; and 1100 experience
serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary
wear and t^ar.
WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The
most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts,
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ-
ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly-
phics, 2112 B. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latina
by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b. o.^-Thucydides.
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters
into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were wiltten on two tables of
stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books,
and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy-
rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those wlio
slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding
xee] dictionary of dates. 603
them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr.
professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by
the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed."— Dr.
Parr.
XANTHUS, Siege op, by the Romans imder Brutus. After a great struggle,
and the endurajj^ce of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able
to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the
loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil-
dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror
wished to spare them, but though he oflered rewards to his soldiers if they
brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved,
much against their will ; 42 b, c. — Plutarch.
XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the
memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in
ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the yotinger Cyrus, after
whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat ;
but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia
into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous
nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step,
and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over
toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con-
ducted exploit on record ; 401 b. c. — Vossius.
XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring
of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of
servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some
historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have
coiisisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the
mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at
Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston-
ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some
of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes-
sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the
courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base
Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the
mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther-
mopylae {ivhich see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7,
480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters.
His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to
Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of
300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine,' and
pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home.
XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont,
the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It was
formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of
fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side
towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were
placedHransversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in
the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great
strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast-
bound rafters, over these a laj-er of unwronght wood, and over the Ijitter
was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and
604 TKiis. world's progeess. [tea
beasts ot burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore
to shore. This wonderflil work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480
B.C.
Y.
YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the
year. The Koman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c. ; and it was
corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Caesar, 45 b. c. See Calen-
dar, The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderialyear, or return
of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid-
erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and still
partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews
dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe-
nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. j the Chris-
tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians'
and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the
Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX.
of France, in 1654, published an arr6t, the last article of which ordered the
year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written
On and from January 1. See New Style, &c.
YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar
months, or 464 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal-
deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added
another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree.
But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first
month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ;
and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews
afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation.
YEAR OP OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was
Charles III., emperor of Germany : he added " In the year of our Lord " to
his reigUj a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by
the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the
Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras.
YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the
Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end
whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they
set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another.
Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The
ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the
world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies
and go through a second course of being.
YEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this
year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and
have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was
called the Jubilee Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven,
and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families
all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged.— ^i5^. Jews.
YEAR, Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia
and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given hf a recent
traveller : —
June 23, Snow melts.
July 1, Snow gone.
July 9, Field quite ereen.
July 17, Plants at full growth
July 25, Plants in flower.
Aug. 2, Fruits ripe.
Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed.
Aug. 18, Snow.
yoa] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 60S
The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au-
gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 300 day« out
of 366 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are
together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks*
duration in these countries.
YEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes
and fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner
does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the
Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim-
ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a
legal space of time.
YELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742,
1791, 1796, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that
disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 65,000) :
670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the
inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804,
40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New lork escaped. Philadelphia
was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in
1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta-
lity was great, and 50,000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand
died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore
suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha-
vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732,
1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was
very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1816 ; at
Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz,
and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less
every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of
the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it
proved fatal to many thousands.
YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised
by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards
inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglet^
Dufresnoy.
YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of
England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also
Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantino the Great was bom, in
274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York
received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the
British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix
of lord has been granted.
VORK, Archbishopric of, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being,
it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity
was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment
was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the form^
were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should bo
restored to York, and Pauunus was made aichbishop of this see, about a. d.
622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of En|;land for
a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and
Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot-
tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew
their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose
between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre-
gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was
606 THE world's progress. [zan
first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome
by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York
was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles
himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome
eight saints, and three cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, twelve
lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north.
It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609Z. 195. 2d. per
annum. — Beatson.
YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at different
periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again
been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap-
pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king
of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in
1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch-
bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands,
and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were
promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was
completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic,
and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829;
the damage estimated at 60,000/., was repaired in 1832.
YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES op. The first battle be-
tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22, 1465. The last
was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists,
or White Bases, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Bed
Bases. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty
freat battles were fought with different success, and half the country was
epopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See
Boses.
YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri-
tish army under lord Cornwaliis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans
and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781.
This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans.
YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen-
dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841.
ZAMA, Battle of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the
time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci-
sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was
granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost
but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed
and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ;
B. c. 202.
ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re-
public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole
group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see),
October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and
were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands,
in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding
year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with
Ragusa, August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3,
1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were
put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified at
Zax] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 607
Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, Novembers,
1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February
22,1817. -
ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Sjn-ia, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught
that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be
baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at
one time very numerous. — Ashe.
ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, yo2t, and yours. The letter z was retained in
Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of
queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were
printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d. 1543.
ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra-
versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the
natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time
of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was
seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to
make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated
by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by
the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many
lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh,
under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of
the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted
several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in
1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soU.
ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus,
son of Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous
dispatch to the senate of Rcfme, in three words: '' Veni, vidi, vici" — "I
came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained.
This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where
he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province
of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c. —
Sue. Cces.
ZELICHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the
most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle
for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by
general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and
prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his
flying army, April 6, 1831.
ZENO, Sect Of, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from
a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha-
rangues. It was the most ifamous portico in Athens, and was called by way
of eminence, Eroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school
of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended
the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am
no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your desi^ is
to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about
312 B. c.
ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the
modems. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no-
ticed by European writers as early as a. d. 1231 ; though the method of
extracting it from the ore was unlaiown for nearly five hundred years
after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate. Craven,
Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after
608 THE world's progress. r ZUB
the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Li-
ihografky.
ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named,
and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about
560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos,
to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones.
The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax-
imander.— Pliny.
ZOE, Reign op. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con-
stantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the
throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa-
phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned,
and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the
name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth,
the trade of whose father (careening vessels)had procured him the surname
of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em-
presses by the popiJace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty
years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to
the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire.
ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes,
viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves,
or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or
insects; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of
zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom
was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832. The Zoological
Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 j the society was chartered
March 27, 1829.
ZTJINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer,
while he oflSciated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and
its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the
papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem-
bHes to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the
second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin-
' glius, who be^^an as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a
skirmish agamst the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531.
The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name
and also Sacramentarians.
ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which
this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome,
in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk
sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger
of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their
Kves, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French
were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799, The Imperialists were
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded,
Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland,
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.
[£Vom the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.]
The following Chronological List of Authors is in extension of the Catalogue
furnished in the Companion of 1831, differing from it hy adding to the name
of each author the title of his most important production, or some word
expressive of the nature of his works.
In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is
divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn
chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists ; the second those who
treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo-
sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles,
his name will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro-
ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated
Qn speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them.
The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could
be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the
time when each author has fiourished.
HEBREW.
[The words in italics between parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons ;
they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, th«
.Tews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben
Maimon. J Mn Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar
Abraham.]
1500' Moses. 1572-1452.
Phinehas, supposed author of the book of
Joshua.
1100 David, 1085-10815.
1000 Solomon, 1033-975.
800 Jonah, d. 761.
Amos.
Hosea,
Joel.
Obadiah.
Micah.
Isaiah, d. 681.
Nahum.
700 Habakkuk.
Zephaniah.
Jeremiah.
600 Baruch.
Ezekiel.
Daniel.
Zechariah.
Haggai.
600 Ezra
Nehemiah, d. 430.
Malachi.
300 Jesus, son of Sirach.
26*
100 Nechoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab-
bahir,' the illustrious book. The most
ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic.
Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase
of the Bible.
A. D.
0 Onkelcw, «Tarcum.*
Josephus, b. 35.
100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna hae been in-
correctly attributed to him.
Shimeon ben Jochai iRashbi). The * Zcrfiar,'
a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary
on the Pentateuch is usually attributed
to him, but was composed l^ his dis-
ciples.
Jose ben Chilpheta, *A History of the
World.'
Nathan of Babylon, * Pirke aboth,' the say-
ings of the fathers. Ethics.
Eliezer, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the savings of
Eliezer, a History of the World.
Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna.' the oral tradi-
tions of the Jews, which, with the
riemara or Commentary, constitutes the
Babylonian Talmud.
610
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphoa,' a
commentary on Leviticus, ana of the
'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers
and Deuteronomy.
200 Ushaya, < Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary
on the Mishna.
Author of the * Mechilta,' a Commentary
on Exodus.
Jochanan, 'Talmud of Jerusalem.'
300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen-
taries on the Bible.
400 Rabasha, began the>*Gemara,' a Commen-
tary on the Mishna.
Martemar, continued the ' Gemara.'
600 Abina, completed the ' Gemara.'
800 Simeon Hejara, ' Great decisions,' jurid.
Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium
of the preceding.
990 Saadik Gaon, ' Philosopher's Stone,' » Book
of Faith.' ' Grammar,' &c.
Sherira, *Tne Book of Answers,' history.
1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034.
Joseph Ching, Grammarian.
Judah Barzelloni, ' Rights of Women,' ju-
ridic.
Joseph ben Gorion (JRibag), ' Compendium
of Hebrew History.'
Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian.
Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ♦ Chest of Spices.'
1100 Alphes, d. 1103. ' Compendium of the
Talmud.'
Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee
Lexicon.'
Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d.
1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.'
Joseph ben Meir {Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com-
mentary on Talmud.'
Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso-
phical.
Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com-
mentaries on the Bible.
Tarn. d. 117. * Sepher Hajashar,' the Book
of Righteousness.
Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), d. 1171.
' Commentary on the Talmud.'
Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173. 'Travels.'
Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo-
logy.
Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian.
Moses Kimhi, Grammarian.
David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian.
Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), d. 1 199. Cab-
balist.
Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist,
Moses ben Maimon iRambam), 1131-1205.
*Yad Hazaka,' the <»*.rong hand, a veiy
celebrated Commentary on the Talmua,
&c. (This author is better known by
his Latinized name, Maimonides.)
1200 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics.
Eliakim, Ceremonies.
Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies.
Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries.
Asher, Compendia of Talmud.
Perez Haccohen (JHarapA), Cabbalist,
Moses ben Nachman (iiamftan), d. 1260.
'Law of Man,' a celebrated book on
Ceremonies, &c.
Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Pioccpts,*
' Compendium of Talmud.'
Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ♦ Proverbs and
Fables.'
Nissim, d. 1268. * Book of Homilies.'
Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.'
Moses Aben Tybon. Translator of Mathe*
matical and Philosophical works from
the Greek and Arabic.
Solomon ben Adras (Rashbd). Theology.
Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimonides.'
Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason for
the enactment of the Laws of Moses.'
Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.'
1300 Shimson, rf. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.'
Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the World,'
History.
Judah, son of Benjamin, RitTsal.
Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.'
Isaac Dura, ' On Forbidden and Permitted
Food.'
Aaron Haccohen, * The Way of Life.'
Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.'
Jacob ben Asher, ' The Four Orders,' a
Ritual of much authority.
David Abudraham, astronomy.
Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag% d. 1370. ♦ Com-
mentary on the Law.'
Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual.
Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash), ' Questions
and Answers on Various Subiects.'
Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.'
Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bocnan,' a polemic work
against Christianity.
Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritbd)^ Commen-
tary on Maimonides.'
Chasdai, rf, 1396. 'Light of the Lord.'
Ethics and Theology.
Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.'
1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual.
Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,—
' Foundation of Faith.'
Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer*
on the Law.'
Joshua Levita, ' Introd. to the Talmud.'
David Vital, ' Golden Verses.'
Samuel Sirsa, Grammar.
Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.'
Elias Misrachi (Rani), Arithmetic.
Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.'
Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics.
1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com-
mentary.
Isaac Varro, 'Explanations of the Bible.'
Elias Levi, Grammar.
Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the Jews.'
Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.'
Abi-aham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred and
Jewish History.
Moses Iserle, Astrology.
Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.'
Azarias Edomseus, History and Philology.
Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and
Chronplogy.
Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar.
David Gans, History.
1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.'
1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy.
AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT.
I. D.
0 St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists.
St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK.
611
GREEK.
IMAOINATION.
FACT.
900 Homer, 'Iliad/ < Odyssey/
Hesiod, ' Works and Days,'
&c.
B.C.
900
B.C.
900
700 Tyrtaeus. Elegies (fragm'ts.)
Archilochus, Satires, Ele-
gies (fragments).
700
700
600 Alcaeus, Lyrics (fragments).
Sapph^ Lyrics (fragments).
Epimenides.
Stesichorus, 633-553 Lyrics
(fragments).
Mimnermus, Elegies (frag-
ments.)
Anacreon, Lyrics.
600
600
Pythagoras, Philosophy.
500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics,
^schylus, 525-456, Trage-
dies.
Pindar, 518-439, Odes.
Bacciiylides, Lyrics.
Sophocles, 495-405, .Trage-
Euripides, 480-486, Trage-
dies.
Aristophanes, d, 338, Come-
dies.
500
Gorgias, Orations (frgts.)
HecatsBUS, Hist, (fragmn'ts.)
Herodotus, d. 484. History.
Thucydides, 471-391, Histo-
ry of Peloponnesian War.
Antiphon, Orations.
Andorides, Orations.
Lysias, 458-378, Orations.
500 Zeno of Elea, Philoeohy.
Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso-
phy.
Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo-
sophy.
Socrates, 468-399, Philoao-
Phy.
400
Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.)
Menander, 242-291, Come-
dies (fragments.)
400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.) ,
Xenophon, 444-359, History,
Philosophy, &c.
Isaeus, Orations.
Isocrates, 536-338, Orations,
Dinarchus, Orations.
Lycurgus, Orations,
Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora-
tions.
iEschines, 389-314, Orations,
400
Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi-
cine.
Democritus, 450-357, Philo-
Pllto, 429-347, Philosophy.
Aristotle, 384-322, PhiloBO.
phy. Criticism.
Theophrastusjd. 288jEthic«.
Epicurus, 341-270, JPhiloso-
phy.
300 Bion, Idyls.
Moschus, Idyls.
Lycophron, 'Cassandra.'
Callimachus, Hymns and
Epigrams.
Theocritus, Idyls.
Aratus, Poem on Astrono-
my.
Cleanthes, Hymns.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argo-
nautics.'
300
Manetho, History (fragm'te.)
300 Euclid, Geometry.
Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi-
losophy.
Apollonius, Conic SectioiM.
Archimedes, d. 212, » Sphere
and Cylinder.* &c.
Eratosthenes, Philosophy.
mi
ras wota^B progress.
niAOXHATXOir.
FACT.
SPEGULATIVB AND BOIBNTXFXO.
2001ficandBr,'nieriaca.
aOO Polybius, 206-124, Universal
History.
ApoUodorus, * Bibliotheca,':
Mythology.
200
100 Ibleager, Epigrams.
100 Conon, Mythology.
Scymnus, Poetical Geogr.
Dionyaius Halicamassus,
* Roman Antiquities.*
Dionysius Periegetes, Ge-
ography 1
Diodorus Siculus, General
History.
100
0
0 Strabo, Geography.
Pausanias, Description of
Greece.
Plutarch, Biography, Morals
dec.
Dion Chrysostom, Orations.
0
Dioscorides, Botany and Me-
dicine.
Epictetus, * Enchiridion,'
Philosophy.
100
lamblichus, * Rhodis and Si-
nonides, a novel.
Lucian, Dialogues.
Oppian, Poems on Hmiting
and Fishing.
AthensBus, d. 194, ' Deipno-
sophistffl, anecdotes.
100 'iEIian, d. 140. Varieties.
AppiaA, History.
Ptolemy, Geog., Astron.
Arrian, * Expedition of Alex-
ander.'
A. D.
100
Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo-
logy.
Polycarp, d. 167, Theology.
Galen, 103-193, Medicine.
Athenagoras,c?. 172, ♦ On tlie
Resurrection.'
Phavorinus, Lexicon.
Hermogenes, d. 161, Rhe-
toric.
Polysenus, Strategy.
M. Aurelius Antoninus, Plii-
losophy..
Nephaestion, * On Metres.'
Max. Tyrius, Philosophy.
Julius Pollux, 'Onomasti-
con,' Rhetoric.
800
200 Diogenes Laertius, d, 222,
'Lives of Philosophers.'
Philostratus, d. 2i4, Life of
Apollonius.
Dion Cassius, History of
Rome.
Herodian, History of Rome.
Porphyrins, 233-30i, Life of
Pythagoras, Philosophy.
200
Ammonius, Philosophy.
Origen, d. 254, Theology
Hesvchius, Lexicon,
lamblichus, Philosophy.
Longinus, d. 278, 'On the
Sublime.'
800
Achilles Tatius, < Clitophon
and Leucippe.' novel.
Tocome/ novel
300 Eusebiusj d. 340, Ecclesias-
tical History.
Liabanius, Orations and
Epistles.
300
Julian, d. 363, Philosophy.
Athanasius, 298-371, Theo-
logy.
Greg. Nazianzen, 318-389,
Theology.
LITBaAIlT CHEONOLOair.-— OREEI4.
613
WACHXATXOll.
FACT.
SPBCULATrVS AIVD SOIBlfTlFIO.
aoo
300
EunapiuB, ' Lives of Philo-
sophers.'
Gregory NyssAus, d. 896,
Theology.
Cyril, 316-386. Theology.
Diophantus, Mathemaucs.
300 Aristanetus, 'EroUc Let-
ters.'
Heliodorus, *Theagenes&
Chariclaea,' novel.
Chariton, * CheBreus and
Calirrhoe,' novel.
300
30O
Chrysostom, 354-407, The-
ology.
400 Longus, 'Daphnis and
Chloe,' novel.
Nonnus, ' Conquest of India
by Bacchus.*
Stobaeus, ♦ Literary Collec-
tiona.'
Quintus SmymaBUS (com-
monly called) Calabar,
' Contin. of Homer.*
MussBUs, Poem of Hero and
Leander?
Eumathius, 'IsmensBUS &,
Ismenaea,' novel.
Coluthus, Poem on * Rape
of Helen.'
Tryphindorus, Poem on
'Destruction of Troy.'
400 Synesius, Orations & Epis-
tles.
Zosimus, « Hist, of Roman
Emperors.'
Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi-
astical History.
Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias-
tical History.
Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi-
astical History.
400 Nemesius, ' Nature of
Man,' Philooophy.
Cyril, d. 443, Homilies.
Proclus, d. 445, Theology.
Proclus, d. 500, Platonist.
600
600 Stephanas, Geography.
Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign
of Justinian.'
Olympiodorus, 'Hist, of
Honorius.'
Cos. Indicopleiistes, Topo-
graphy.
Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist.
Agathias, Byzantine Hist.
600 Simplicius, < Commentfl oa
Aristotle.'
Tribonianus, Juriet
600
600 Menan, Protector, Chron.
Theophanes, Byzant.Hist.
Theophylactus Simocatta,
Byzantine History.
600
Philoponus, Grammarian.
700
700
700 Damascenus, d. 760, The-
ology.
800 .
800 Nicephorus, 758^828, Hist.
Syncellus, History.
John Malalas, History.
800 Theodoras StudHw, 7B9-
826, Sermons.
Photius, d. 891, *BibUo.
theca.'
900
900
Leontms, History.
Genesius, History.
900 Leo VI., d. 911, « On Obzl»
tian Faith.'
614
THK world's progress.
ZMAOXMATXON.
PAOT.
SPECULATOVB AMD BCIBHTina
900
900 Const. Porphyrogenneta,
905-959, Hist Selections.
Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives
of Saints.
900
1000
1000 George Cedrenus, History.
John Xiphilinus, rf. 1080,
Abridg. of Dion Cassius.
John Scylitza, History.
1000 •
Theophylactus, Theology.
Michael Psellus, Mathema-
tics.
1100
C. Theo. Prodromus, ♦ Rho-
danthe and Dosicles,'
novel.
1100
Nicephorus Bryennius, d.
1137, Byzant. Affairs.
Anna Comnena, Reign of
her father Alexius.
Const, Manasses, History.
Zonaras, History of Ro-
mans, History of Jews.
Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184,
History.
John Tzetzes, History in
Verse.
Cinnamus, History.
1100 Euthymius Zygabcnue,
Theology.
Suidas, Lexicon.
Eustathias, Commentaries
on Homer.
Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary
on Lycophron.
1200
1200 Joel, History.
Michael Glycas, History.
George Acropolita, Hist.
Nicetas Acominatus, Hist.
George Pachymer, Hist.
1200
Nicephorus Blemmidas,
Theology.
1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340,
Poems.
Maximus Planudes, Anth-
Leo Filatus, Literature.
1300 Theod. Metochita, d, 1312,
History.
Callistus Xantopulus, Ec-
clesiastical History.
Niceph. Gregoras, History.
John Cantacuzenus. Hist.
George Codinus, Hist.
Michael Ducas, History.
1300
1400
Demet. Pamperes, Tales.
Marullus Tarchoniota d.
1500, Poems. .
1400
Theodore Gaza, d. 1478.
Origin of Turks.
Laonicus Chalcondyles,
History of Turks.
1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d.
1415, Grammar.
Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho,
d. 1450, Philosophy.
Eman. Moscopulus, Notei
on Hesiod.
Bessarion, 1395-1472, The-
ology.
Geo. of Trebizond, 1396-
1468, Aristotelian.
John Argyrophilus, AnstO'
telian.
1600
1500
1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles,
1453-1513, Philology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ^LATIN ARD ITALIAN.
615
IMAOIKATION.
1700 Kallinikus, Poems.
Nicholas Caradza, Trans-
lation of Voltaire.
1700
Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat-
ural Philosophy.
1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy.
Christopulus, Anacreon-
tics, Opera.
Calvos, Lyrics.
Ilarion, Translation of So-
phocles.
1600
1700
Alexander Maurocordato,
History of the Jews.
Meletius, Geography.
Ducas, Translation of Thu-
cydides.
1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827,
Hist, of Wallachia, &c.
Paliuris, Hist, of Greece.
Perrevos, History of Suli
and Parga.
Gr. Demetrius, Geography.
SPECULATIVB AND SCIBNTIFIO.
1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The-
ology.
1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian.
Marcus Tharhoures, Me*
chanica.
1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics.
1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics.
Coray, Commentaries, Lex*
icon.
Cumas, Dictionary.
Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics.
LATIN AND ITALIAN.
[The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal
use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the tliirteenth century, when the
modem languages began to appear.
As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged
all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head ; but about the sixth century they will be
found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which
they wrote.]
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC.
B. C.
B. C.
B. C.
200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies.
200
200
Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts).
P. Terentius, Comedies.
M. p. Cato, De Re Rustica.
100
100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110-
100 Varro, 11&-28, De Re Rusti-
33, Letters.
ca Lingua Latina.
Vitruvius, Architecture.
Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fasti
Capitolini.
T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re-
M. T. Cicero, 107-43, Orator
rum Natura.
and Philosopher.
Catullus, 86-40, Lyrics.
Julius Caesar, 98-46, Com-
mentaries.
Hirtius Pansa, Gallic War.
C, Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur-
thine War.
Com. Nepos, Biography.
P. Virgilius, 70-19, Eneid.
Q. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Sat-
Propertius, 59-16, Elegies.
A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17
T. Livius, 59 b. C.--19 a. d..
History of Rome.
A. D., Elegies.
Ovid, 43 B. 0.-17 a. d., Me-
tamorph. Fasti, &c.
Hyginus, Poeticon Astro-
nomicon.
616
THE world's PROOItGSS.
OfACUHATIOH.
FACT.
SPECULATZVB ANB SOZBHTIVIC.
▲.D.
A. D.
A. D.
0
0 Vel Paterculus, 19 b, 0.-30
A. »., Hist, of Rome.
Pomp. Mela, Geography.
Valerius Maximus, Anec-
dotes of Great Men.
0
Phffidrus, Fables.
C. Celsus, De Medicina.
Quintus Curtius, History of
Alexander.
Columella, Agriculture.
Persius, 34-62, Satires.
Lucan, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.*
L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philos-
opher. Tragic Poet.
Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat-
ral History.
Petronlus Arbiter, d. 67, Sa-
tyricon.
Valerius Flaccus, Argonau-
Quintilian Criticism.
tics.
Silius , Italicus, < Punic
War.'
Sulpicia, Satires, Sec.
StaUus, d. 99, 'Thebais,'
'AchiUeis.'
Martial, 29-104, Epigrams.
Juvenal, 48-128, Satires.
Pliny the Younger, 61-113,
Epistles.
100
100 Tacitus, History.
100 Valer, Probus, Grammar.
Suetonius, Biography.
Florus, History of Rome.
Frontmus, Strategy.
Aulus Gellius, Noctes At-
Terentianus Maurus, De Ar-
te Metrica.
L. Apuleis, Golien Ass.
tiCSB.
C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor.
Justin, History.
Pompei. Festus, Grammar.
200
200
200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law.
TertuUian, d. 220, 'Apology
for Christianity.'
Minutius Felix, Dialogue in
favor of Christianity.
Julius Obsequens, ♦ De Pro-
digiis.'
Censorinus, *De Die Na-
tali.'
Cyprian, d. 258, Theology.
Jul. C^lpuroius, Eclogues.
800
300 El Spartianus, History.
300 Amobius, * Adversus gen-
Jul. CapitolinUs, History.
tes.'
^1. Lampridus, History.
Lactantius, d. 325, Defence
Vul. GalUcanus, History.
of Christianity.'
Trebellius, Pollio, History.
Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel
F. Vopiscus, History.
iEl. Donatus, Grammar. '
in Verse.
Aurelius Victor, History.
F. Maternus, Astronomy
Theology.
M. Victorinus, Hymns.
Ambrosius, Theology.
F. Eutropius, History of
Festufl Avienus, Geographi-
Rome.
cal Poem.
Amm. Marcellinus, History
Jerom. 329—420, Version of
D.M.Ausonius, Idyls.
of Rome.
Bible.
Rufinus. d. 410, Ecclesiasti-
cal History.
T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re
Militari.
A. T. Macrobius, Satur-
Augustin, 354—430, Theol-
nalia.
ogy.
tymmachuB, Epistles.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — ^LATIN AND ITALIAN.
617
ntAaiNATION.
PACT.
SPEOULATIVa AMB SOIBNTiyiO
300 G. Claudianus, Poems.
A. Prudentius Clemens,
Christian Poems.
300
300
400
Sedulius, Poetical Life of
Christ.
Martianus Capella, De Nup-
tius Phil, et Merc.
Paulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on
Martin of Tours.
Sidonius ApoUinaris, d. 488,
Poems.
Ennodius, d. 521, Christian
Poems.
400 Vib. Sequester, Geography.
Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420,
Sacred History.
Orosius, Hist, of World.
Victorius, History of Church
in Africa.
Idacius, Chronicles to 468.
400
GOO Boethius, Poet and Philo-
sopher.
Arator, 490-556, Acts of
Apostles in Verse.
500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His-
tory.
Jornandes, Hist, of Goths.
Evagrius, Eccl. History.
500 Priscianus, Grammar.
Fulgentius, 468-533, The-
ology.
Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536,
Christian Era.
Non. Marcellus, Grammar.
600
600 Secundus, d. 615, History
of Lombards.
600
700
700
Paul Wamefrid, History
of Lombards.
700 Cresconius. CoUection
Canons, Verses.
800
800 Erchempert, History of
Lombards.
Anastasius, Lives of Popes.
800
900
900 Luitprand, History of his
Times.
900
1000
1000
1000 Papias, Grammar.
Lanfranc, d. 1089, Theol.
1100 Donizo, Latin Foeiry.
CiuUod* Alcamo, Sicilian
Poetry.
1100
Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily.
1100
Gratian, Canonist
Campanus, Mathematics.
1200
Guido of Colonna, Poetry,
History.
Brunetto Latina, d. 1294,
'IlTesora.'
Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300,
Poems.
John XXII., Poem on Me-
dicine.
1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249,
History.
Marco Polo, Trayels.
G. de Voraf ine, d. 1298,
Legends of Saints.
1200 Accursius, 118^1260. Law
Thomas Aquinas, 12dl-
1274, Theology.
Bonaventura, Scholastic
G. Durand, Law.
Pietro d'Albano, 12e0-l» \
Torregiano Rustecbelli,
Commentaries.
'618
THE world's progress.
XMAaXMATIOK.
I30C Dante, 1265-1321, La Di-
vina Commedia.
F. Barberino, 1264-1348,
Poems.
Petrarca, 1304-1374, Son-
nets, Epic, Literature.
Boccacio, 1313-1375, 'B-
Decamerone.'
1300
Ferreti, 1356-1429, History
of his Times.
1400
A. Beccatlelli, 1374-1471,
* Hermaphroditus.'
Poggio, 1380-1459, Litera-
ture.
Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457,
Literature,
D. Burchiello, Sonnets.
Pulci, 1432-1487, 'Mor-
gante Maggiore.'
Franc. Philelphus, 1398-
1481, Poetry and Ethics.
Loren. de'Medici, d. 1492,
Poetry, Literature.
Angelo Poliziano, 1454-
1494, Poetry, Drama.
Marsihus Ficinus, 1433-
1499, Translat. Plato.
1600
G. Ruccellai, 1475-1526, « Le
Apt.'
Alexander ab Alexandre,
1461-1523, Dies Geni-
tales.
M. Boiardo, * Orlando inna-
morato.'
Sanazar, 1458-1530, Ar-
Berni, d. 1530, Satires.
Ariosto, 1474-1533, * Or-
lando Furioso.'
F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po-
ems.
Trissino, 1478-1550, « Italy
Delivered,* Epic Trage-
dy.
1400 Leonardo Bruni, History of
Florence.
Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans-
lation of Plutarch.
B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His-
tory of Holy War.
Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463,
History of Venice, &c.
Mn. Sylvius, 140-1464, His-
tory, Poetry, &c.
John Gobelin, History.
Beccat. Panormita, 1393-
1471, Biography.
Bart. Platina, 1421-1481,
Lives of Popes.
F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496,
Biography.
Pomp. Laetus, 1425-1495,
Lives of Caesars, &c.
Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo-
graphy.
G. Pontano,1426-l563,Wars
of Ferdinand I.
Bonfinius, d. 1502, History
of Hungary.
SPECULATIVB AND SOIEMTIFIO.
1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy.
Am. Villanovan, d. 1313,
Alchemy.
Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327,
Astronomy.
G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca-
nons.
Bartolus, Law.
1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra.
Nicholas Tedeschi, Law.
Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462,
Medicine.
Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460
Baraterius, Law.
Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396^
1479, Orier.Talist.
Paul Toscanello, d. 1482,
Astronomy.
1500 R. Accolti, 1455-1532, His-
tory.
Machiavelli, 1482-1528, His-
tory of Florence, &c.
Guicciardini, l482-1540.
History of Italy.
Bembo, 1470-1547, History
of Venice.
L. Alberti, d. 1552, History
of Bologna.
Pico .Je Mirandola, 1463-
1494, Metaphysics.
Luca di Burgo, Mathem.
1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512,
Anatomy.
L. da Vmci, 1452-1520,
'Treatise on Painting.'
G. Abrosi, Astronomy.
A. Acchiilini, 1472-1512,
Medicine.
B. Castiglione, 1478-1529,
* The Courtier.'
I
G. Fracaatoro, 148J-1533,
Medicine.
And. Alciato, 1492-1550,
Law.
Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN.
619
IMAGINATION.
1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin
Poetry.
Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d.
1564, Poems.
Giovanni della Casa. 1503-
1556, II Galateo, &c.
G. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tra-
gedy.
L. Dolce, 1508-1568, Trage-
dy, Epic, History.
Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575,
' Amadis,'
Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573,
Tragedy.
A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583,
Comedies.
Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595,
'Gerusalemme Liberata.'
G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra-
gedy.
Guarini, 1538-1613, ' II Pas-
tor Fido.'
Ottavio Rinuccini, Opera.
F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605,
*La Croce Racquistata.'
Oraz. Vecchi, Comic Opera
G.Marini,1569-1625, Poems.
C. Achillini, 1577-1640, Po-
ems.
A.Tassoni,1561-1635, 'Sech-
chia Rapita.'
1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637,
Poems.
Laur. Lippi, 1606-1664, Co-
mic Poems.
G. Marini, Romances.
Salvaktor Rosa, 1615-1673,
Satires.
C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699,
Poems.
B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto-
biography.
B. Varchi. 1503-1566, His-
tory of his Times.
V.Borgh.ni, 1515-1580, His-
tory.
G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives
of Painters, &c.
Sperone Speroni, 1500-1588,
Orations.
S. Ammirato, 1531-1600,
History of Florence.
G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His-
tory of his Times.
B. Davanzati, 1529-1606,
Hist. Eng. Reformation.
C. Baronius, 1538-1607, Ec-
clesiastical Annals.
P. Paruta, 1540-1598, Histo-
ry of Venice.
Posse vini, 1533-1611, De-
scription of Muscovy,«fec,
P. R. Sarpi, 1552-1623, His-
tory of Coun. of Trent.
E. C. Davila, 1576-1631,
Hist. Civil Wars France.
1600 G. Bentivoglio,- 1579-1644,
History Civil Wars Flan-
ders.
P. della Valle, 1586-1652,
Tr&vds
F. Strada,* 1571-1649, Hist,
of Wars of Flanders.
G. B. Nani, 1616-1678, His-
tory of Venice.
Oderic Rainaldi, Ecclesias-
tical Annals.
Villani, Hist, of Florence.
SPEGULATIVB AND 8CIENTIPI0.
1500 F. Commandido, 1609-1676,
Mathematics.
Angelo Caninio, d. 1557,
Orientalist.
And. Vesalio, 1514-1564,
Anatomy.
Falopius, 1523-1563, Medi
cine.
Eustachi, d. 1576, Do.
P. Manut Aldus, i 312-1574,
Commentaries.
Cardano, 1501-1576, Mathe-
matics.
P. Launcelloti, 1511-1591
Law.
Andrea Caesalpino, 15l9-
1603, Botany.
U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605,
Natural History.
Orazio Torsellino, 1545-
1609, Grammar.
1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, Com-
parative Anatomy.
Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po-
lemics.
Galileo, 1564-1642, Aatron.
T. A. Campanella, 1568-
1693, Philosophy.
L. Vanini, 1585-1619, Theo-
logy.
B. Castelli, d. 1644, Mathe-
matics.
B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do.
Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647,
Botany, &c
F. Redi, 1636-1697, Natuml
History.
M. Malpighi, 1628-1694,
Anatomy.
THE WOKLWS FROGRB88.
PAOT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTiPXa
1800 Ben. Manzina, 1646-1704,
1600
V. Viviani, 1621-1703, Ma-
Art of Poetry. Satires.
V. FiUcaja, 164^-1707, Po-
thematics.
A. Magliabecchi, 1633-1714,
ems.
Literature.
G. D. Cassipi, 1625-1712,
Mathematics, Astron.
D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710,
Mathematics.
1700 Alesa. Guidi, 1650-1712, Ly-
1700
1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me-
rics.
dicine.
A. Marchetti,1633-1714, Po-
G. V. Gravina, 1564-1718,
ems, Philosophy.
N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735,
~
Law.
Ricciardetto.
G. M. Crescembini, 1663-
1728, Poetry.
L. Muratori, 1672-1750,
Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750,
Annals of Itality.
Operas.
B. Giannone, 1680-1748,
History of Naples.
S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra-
gedy.
G. Cassini, 1677-1756,
Astronomy.
F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756,
G. Morgagni, 1681-1771,
History of the Valteline.
Anatomy.
M. Metastasio, 169&-1782,
Dramas, Operas.
A. Genovesi, 1712-1769,
Metaphysics.
B. Buonamici, 1710-1761,
F. Algarotti,, 1712-1764,
History.
'Newtonianism,'
G.R. Boscowich^7ll-1787,
Mathematics, Philology.
F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777,
C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co-
Philosophy.
medics.
C. Beccaria, 1720-1795.
'Crimes & Punishments.'
" C. 1. Frugoni, 169^-1768,
Poems.
A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio-
O. Gozzi, 17ia-1786, Sa-
graphy.
tires, Odes.
G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794,
L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799,
Hist, of Italian Literature.
Natural History.
L. Galvani, 1737-1798, Gal-
V. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra-
vanism.
gedies.
Volta. 1745-1827, Do.
G. Filangieri, 1751-1798,
Legislation.
1800 Pindemonte, Poems.
1800
1800
Monti. Poems.
Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po-
ems.
Botta, History of Italy, &c.
Denina. History of Italian
Revolutions.
Scarpa, Anatomy.
I. da Ponte, Poems, Operas.
Ifanzoni, Novels.
Silvio Pellico, Memoirs.
M. Gioja, 1767-1890, FoUi.
Economy.
LITERARY GHRONOLOOY— BRITISH.
681
BRITISH, &c.
IMAaiMATION.
FACT.
SPBCULATIVB AMD SOIBMTiyiO.
A. D.
500
A. D.
500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain
A. D.
500
600 CBBdmon, Saxon Poems.
Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po
ems.
600 Nennius, Origin of Britons.
600
700
700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo-
ry of England.
700
Alcuin, d. 804, Theology,
History, Poetry.
800 Alfred, &i9— 901, Saxon Po-
ems, Translauons, &c.
800
Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred,
History of England.
800 J. Scot Erigena. rf. 883, *Or
the Nature of Thing*.*
900
900 Ethelwerd, History of Great
Britain.
900
1000
1000 Ingulphus, 1030-1109, His-
tory of CroyJand.
Eadmer, Chronicle.
1000
noo
Layamon, Saxon Poetry.
Nigellus, Speculum Stulto-
rum.
Walter Mapes, Satires,
So.ig^.
Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War,
War of Antioch, Epics.
1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132,
History of England.
Florence of Worcester, d.
1118, Chron. of England.
Geoffry of Monmouth, His-
tory of Britain.
William of Malmsbury, d.
1143, Hist, of Britain.
Henry of Huntingdon,
Chronicles of England.
Simeon of Durham, Chron-
icles of England.
John of Salisbury, d. 1181,
' Life of Becket,' &c.
G. Caoibrensis, Conq. of
Ireland, Itin. of Wales.
Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136,
Chron. of England.
1100
Robert Pulleyn, rf. 1150,
Theology.
Richard of St. Victor, d.
1173, Theology.
Ralph Glanvilte, Collection
Of Laws.
1200
1
1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of
England.
Gervase of Canterbury,
History of England.
Roger of Wendover, Hist,
of England.
Matthew Paris, d. 1259,
History of England.
1200
Alex. Neckham, d. 1227,
Theology.
Robert Grosteste, Natural
Philosophy.
Alexander Hales, d. 1246,
Aristotelian.
John Peckham, Theology.
John HoUwood, d. 1%8,
Astron., Mathematics.
THE world's progress.
XMAOINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AlTD SCIENTIVIO.
Robert of Glocester, Chron-
William Rishanger, His-
tory of England.
Roger Bacon, 1214— 129^
icle in verse.
Chemistry, Optics, &c.
T. Lermont, the Rhymer,
Rich. Middleton, Theology.
Sir Tristem, Romance.
1300
1300
1300 Albricus, Theology.
Duns Scotus, d. 1308, Phil-
osophy.
Walter Burleigh, Philoso-
phy.
Gilb. Anghcus, Medicine.
Adam Davie, Metr. Ro-
Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328,
R. Aungervile, 1281—1345,
mance, Life of Alex. .
Hist. Physic, Theology.
Richard of Chichester,
PhilobibUon.
Lawrence Minot, d. 1352,
Cbron. of England.
J. Wicliffe, 1324-1384,
Historical Poems.
Ralph Higden, d. 1360,
Chron. of England.
Theology, Translation of
Bible.
Henry Knighton, d. 1370,
Chron. of England.
Matthew of Westminster,
John Barbour, 132&-1396,
'Flowers of History.'
' The Bruce.'
John Maundeviile, d. 1372,
H. de Bracton, Law.
R. Langlande, 'Pierce
Travels.
. Plowman,' a Satire.
John Fordun, Chron. of
Geof Chaucer, 1328-1400,
Scotland.
' Canterbury Tales,' &c.
John Gower, d. 1402, Ele-
gies, Romances, &c.
'400
1400 Andrew of Wyntoun,
Chron. of Scotland.
1400
John Lydgate, 1380-1440,
Poems.
T. Walsingham, d. 1440,
History of Normandy.
James I. of Scotland, 1395-
John Fortescue, Laws »i
1437, 'King's Quhair,'
&c.
Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir
England.
W.Wallace.'
John Hardyng, Chron. of
^ Thomas Littleton, d. 1487,
England.
Law.
Lord Berners, Trans, of
Froissart.
Stephen Hawes, * Passe-
W. Caxton, Translations.
tyme of Pleasure.'
John Skelton, d. 1529,
Douglas of Glastonbury,
Satires, Odes.
Chron. of England.
loOO Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530,
1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron.
1600 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524,
'Thistle and Rose.'
of England and France,
Philology, Medicine.
Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522,
Trans. Virgil.
Thomas More, 1480-1535,
Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus-
'Utopia.'
bandry.
Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541,
Sonnets.
T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of
John Hey wood, d. 15G5,
Houses of York and Lan-
Thomas Elyot, Philology.
Drama.
caster.
H. Latimer, 1475—1555,
Earl of Surrey, d.' 1546-7,
John Leland, d. 1552, Eng-
Sermons.
Poems.
lish Antiquities.
Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577,
W. Cavendish. 1505-1557,
Dmma.
'Lifeof Wolsey.'
J. Ball, 1495-1563, 'Lives
Roger Ascham, 1515-1568^
' The Schoolmaster.'
of British Writers.'
^
Ralph Hollingshed,d. 1.581,
Thomas Wilson, d. 1581
Chronicles.
Logic and Rhetoric.
Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582,
Thomas Tusser, d. 1580,
History of Scotland.
Husbandry.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH.
IMAOINATION.
Philip Sidney, 1554—1586,
( A rc3,difL '
Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593,
Drama.
Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598,
♦Faery Queen."
W. Shakspeare, 1564—
1616, Drama.
John Lylie, 1550— 1600,
*Euphue8.'
John Fletcher, 1576—1625,
Drama.
F. Beaumont, 1586—1615,
Drama.
1600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin
Epigrams.
Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639,
Poet.
J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama.
Ben Jonson, 1574—1637,
Drama.
P. Massenger, 1585—1639,
Drama.
J. Harrington, 1561—1612,
Trans. Ariosto.
E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans.
M. Drayton, 1563—1631,
Poems.
G. Sandys, 1577-1643,
Translations, Poems.
J. Daniel, 1562—1619,
Poems.
W. Drummond, 1585-1649,
Poems.
John Donne, 1573—1662,
Satires, Essays.
Geo. Wither, 1588—1667,
Satires,
James Shirley, 1594—1666,
Drama.
Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1641,
Poems.
John Denham, 1615—1668,
Tragedies. Cooper's Hill.
Samuel Butler, 1612—1688,
Hudibras.
John Milton, 1608—1674,
' Paradise Lost.'
Edm. Waller, 1605—1687,
Poems.
4. Cowley, 1618—1667,
Poems.
A. Maxwell 1620—1678.
Poems.
J. Fox, 1517—1587, Book
of Martyrs.
N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612,
Biography.
John Stowe, 1527—1605,
Chronicles, Topography.
Sir T. North, Translations
of Plutarch.
1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog.
of Kings, Bishops, &c.
Richard Knolles, d. 1610,
History of the Turks.
Wm. Camden, 1551—1623,
Antiquities,
R. Hackluyt, 1553-1616,
Naval Histories.
W. Raleigh, 1562—1617,
History of the World.
Samuel Daniel, 1567—1619,
History of England,
John Hay ward, d. 1627,
English History.
J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist.
of Great Britain.
Henry Spelman, 1562-1641,
Antiquities.
R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631,
Antiquities.
S. Purchas, 1577-1628,
Collection of Voyages.
Thomas Roe, 1580—1641,
Travels in the East.
E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581—
1648, History of Henry
VIII.
R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron.
of England.
Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661,
History, Biography.
Clarendon, 1608-1673, His-
tory of Rebellion.
Thomas May, d. 1650, His-
tory of Parliament.
Izaak Walton, 1593—1683,
Biography.
B. Whitlocke, 1605—1676,
History.
Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra-
vF. Prynne, 1660—1667,
History, Politics.
SPECULATIVB AND SOIBNTinO.
J. Jewel, 1522—1570, Di-
vinity.
R. Hooker, 1553—1600, Ec-
clesiastical Polity.
W. Gilbert, 1540—1603,
' On the Loadstones'
L. Andrews, 1565—1626,
Sermons.
1600 Edward Coke, . 550—16^,
John Napier, 1550—1617,
Logarithms.
Robert Burur, 1576—1639,
' Anat, of Melancholy.'
Francis Bacon, 1560—1626,
Philosophy, History.
Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657,
Circulation of Blood.
John Selden, 1584—1654,
Antiquities, Law, Hist.
J. Harrington, 1611—1677,
' Oceana.*
James Usher, 1580—1666,
Divinity, Sermons, Hist.
Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679,
Metaphysics
W. Dugdale, 1605—1686,
Antiquities, History.
W. Chillingworth, 1602—
1644, Theology.
Isaac Barrow, 1680—1677,
Divinity, Mathematics.
J. Pearson, 1612— 1686,
Divinity.
Brian Walton, 1600—1661,
Polyglot Bible
Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667,
Divmity.
Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683.
♦Discourse on Govern-
ment.'
Thos. Browne, 1605—1682,
' On Vulgar Errors,'
Edmund Castell, d. 1685,
Lexicon Hepta^lotton.
R. Cudworth, 1617-1688,
Metaphysics.'
«M
THE world's progress.
nfAOINATIO>l.
1600
Rochester, 164S— 1680,
Satires.
Roscommon, 1633—1684,
Poems.
N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama.
John Bunyan, 1628—1688,
* Pilgrim's Progress.'
John Dryden, 1631—1701,
Tragedy, Satire, ' Virgil.'
Thos. Otway, 1651—1685,
Tragedy.
1700 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713,
« The Choice.' Fcedera.
1600
Wm. Temple, 1629—1710,
History.
R. Brady, d. 1700, History
of England.
John Philips, 1676-1^03,
'Splendid Shilling.'
Thos. Parnell, 1679—1718,
'The Hermit.'
Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707,
Comedies.
Matthew Prior, 1664—1721,
Poems.
R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama,
Daniel Defoe, 1660—1731,
'Robinson Crusoe.'
Jos. Addison, 1672—1719,
'Spectator,' 'Cato.'
Nich. Rowe, 1673-1718,
Tragedy.
J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com-
W. tJongreve, 1672-1728,
Comedy.
John Gay, 1688-173-3,
' Beggar's Opera,' Fab.
M. W. Montague, 1690-
1762, Letters.
Robert Blair, 1699—1746,
* The Grave.'
S. Richardson, 1689— 1761,
» Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c.
D. Garrick, 1716-1779,
Drama.
ft Poote, iraO-1771,
Drama.
S. Ockley, 1678—1720,
Oriental History.
Thos. Heame, 1678—1735,
History and Antiquities.
John Strype, 1643—1737,
Eccl. History, Biog.
Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715,
'History of his Times.'
L. Echard, 1671—1730,
History of England.
Thos. Carte. 1686—1754,
History oi England.
John Potter, 1674—1747,
Antiquities.
SirW. Petty, 1623-1682,
Statistics.
Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763,
History of Rome.
C. Middleton, 1683—1750,
Life of Cicero, &c.
SPECULATIVE AND 80IBNTIVI0.
1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706,
' Sylva.'
H. More, 1614—1687, The-
ology.
T. Sydenham, 1634—1689,
Medicine.
W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Di-
vinity.
J. Tillotson, 1630—1694,
Sermons.
Archbishop Leighton,
1613—1681, Divinity.
R. Baxter, 1615—1691,
'Saint's Everlasting
Rest.*
R.Boyle, 1627—1691,
Theology, Chemistry.
1700
John Ray, 162&— 1705, Bot-
any, Natural History.
John Locke, 1632-1704,
Metaphysics.
R. South, 1633—1716, Di-
vinity.
Isaac Newton, 1642—1719,
' Principia.'
J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719,
Astronomy.
R. Hooke, 1635'-1702, Phil-
osophy.
B. de Mandeville, 1670—
1733, ' Fab. of the Bees.'
Edm. Halley, 1656—1742,
Astronomy.
Hans Sloane^ 1660—1753,
Natural History.
A. Clark, 1690—1742, Di
vinity, Philosophy.
D. Waterland, 1683—1740,
Divinity.
R. Bentley, 1661—1740,
Divinity, Philology.
A. Baxter, 1687—1750, Met-
aphysics.
Lord Bolingbroke. 1672—
1751, Politics, Lrteraturc,
G. Berkeley, 1684—1753,
Metaphysics, Ethics.
P. Doddrftge, 1701—1751.
Divinity.
Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762,
Astronomy.
F. Hutcheson, 1694-1747,
Moral Philosophy.
T. Sherlock, 1678—1761,
Divinity.
C. Maclaurin, 1696—1746,
Mathematics.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— ^BRITISH.
IMAOIMATION.
PACT.
SPBOULATIVK AND SOIBNTIWO.
1700 R. Rodsley, 1703-1764,
1700 John Swinton, 1703-1767,
1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694-
Drama.
History, Antiquity.
1773, Letters.
Jona. Swift, 1667-1745,
Eph. Chambers, d. 1740,
Satires, Tales, &c.
Cyclopaedia.
B. Hoadley, 1676—1761,
1. Watts, 1674-1748,
Hymns.
Polemics.
Edw. Young, 1681—1765,
» Night Thoughts.'
Bishop Butler, 1692—1782,
Divmity.
Alex. Pope, 1688-1744,
Poetry.
W. Somerville, 1692-1743,
< The Chase.'
Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758,
' The Gentle Shepherd.'
Rich'd Savage, 1698-1743,
Poems.
Jas. Thomson, 1700—1748,
J. Wesley, 1703-1791, Di-
'Seasons.'
Lord Lyttleton, 1709-^1778,
vinity.
John Dyer, 1700-1758,
History, Poems, Divin-
D. Hartley, 17(M-1757,
Poems.
ity.
' Observations on Man.'
H. Fielding, 1707-1754,
James Granger, d. 1776,
Biog. Hist, of England.
Soame .Tenyns, 1704—1787,
' Tom Jones,' &c.
Theology.
James Hammond, 1710—
W. Warburton, 1709-1779,
1742, Elegies.
Theology, Criticism.
Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768,
J. Jortin, 1698-1770, Di-
'Tristram Shandy.'
vinity, Criticism.
W. Shenstone, 1714—1763,
Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784,
Lord Kaimes, 1696—1782,
Pastorals, &c.
Lives of Poets, Diet., &c.
Jonas Hanway, 1712—1786,
Elements of Criticism.
W. Collms, 1720—1756,
R. Lowth. 1710-178^ Di-
Odes.
Travels in the East.
vinity, Philology.
W. Blackstone, 1723—1780,
H. Brooke, 1706-1783,
John Blair, d. 1782, Chro-
' Fool of Quality.'
nology.
David Hume, 1711-1776,
Laws of England.
M. Akenside, 1721—1770,
" Junius."
'Pleasures of Imagina-
History of England,
tion.*
Essays, &c.
Thos. Gray^ 1716-1771,
Odes, Elegies.
W. Robertson, 1721-1793,
Adam Smith, 1723—1790,
T. SmoUet, 1720-1771,
Hist, of Charles v., &c.
'Wealth of Nations.'
Novels.
Thomas Warton, 1728—
1790, History of England,
J. Harris, 1709-1780, Phi-
R. Glover, 1712—1789, ' Le-
lology.
John Hunter, 1728-1793,
onidas.'
Poetry, Poems.
O. Goldsmith, 1731—1774,
Medicine.
♦Traveller,' 'Vicar of
F. Balguy, 1716-1795, Di-
Wakefield.'
vinity.
W. Mason, 1725-1797, Po-
ems, Biography.
n. Walpole, </. 1797, 'His-
T. Chatterton, 1752-1770,
toric Doubts,' ' Royal
Poems.
and Noble Authors,'
Ar. Murphy, 1727-1805,
J. Moore, 1730—1802.
'Views of Society and
T. Reid, 1710-1796, Meta-
Drama.
physics.
Wm. Cowper, 1731-1800,
Manners,'
Sir J. Reynolds, 1723—1792,
Poems.
James Bruce, 1730-1794,
Art.
R.Cumberland, 1732-1811,
Travels,
S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo-
Drama.
W. Gilpin, 1724—1804, Bio-
graphy. Divinity.
E. Gibbon, 1737-1794,
Jos^^riestley, 1733-18(W,
Eras. Darwin, 1732-1802,
'Botanic Garden.'
Metaphysics, Chemistry.
Hugh Blair, 1719-1800.
James Beattie, 1735-1803,
Decline and Fall of Ro-
Poems.
man Empire.
Sermons.
R. Ferguson, 1750-1774,
J. Whitaker, 1735-1808,
J.HomeTooke, 1736—1812
Poems.
Hist, of Manchester, &c.
Philology.
Geo. Colman, ir33— 1794,
Edmd, Burke, 1730-1797,
Wm. Jones, 1747-1794,
Comedies.
Oratory.
J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio-
Orientalist.
J.Wolcot (Peter Pindar),
R, Price, 1723-1791, Meta-
1738-1819, Com. Po-
ems.
J.^^^&ifner, 1744-1797,
physics. Divinity.
W^. Paley, 1743—1806,
Jas. Macpherson, 1738—
1796, ' Ossian'p Poems.'
Church History.
Theology.
Joseph Strutt, 1748-1802,
Ricd. Person, 1759-1808
Robert Bums, 1759—1796,
Chronology, Antiquities.
Philology.
Ths. Beddoes, 1760-1808,
Poems.
J. Home, d. 1908, Drama.
Medicine.
626
THE world's progress.
nCAOINATION.
1700
Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751—
laf.e, Drama.
Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823,
Novels.
13(X; Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823,
' Farmer's Bov.'
Mrs. Barbauld, Poems,
Tales.
Lord Byron, 1788—1824,
Poems.
John Keats, Poems.
P. B. Shelley, d. 1822,
Poems.
R. C. Maturin, d. 1824,
Drama.
Miss Austin, Novels.
Wm. Godwin, 1755—1836,
Novels, Metaphysics.
Walter Scott, 1771—1832,
^ Novels, Poems.
Robt. Pollok, 1798—1827,
'Course of Time.'
Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, * The
Borough,' &c.
Fanny Bumey, — l&iO,
Novels.
Wm. Beckford, 1760—1844,
Novels.
Thos. Haines Baily, 1797—
1839. Lyrics.
Thos. ' Hamilton, 1789—
1842, Novels, Travels.
Felicia Hemans, 1794—
1835, Poems.
Barbara Hofland, Novels.
Jas. Hogg, —1835, Po-
ems and Tales,
Theo. E. Hook, 1788—1841,
Novels.
Thos. Hood, Poems, No-
Hannah More, 1744-1833,
Poems, Tales.
Jane Porter, —1849,
Novels.
S. T. Coleridge, —1834,
Poems.
Wm. Wordsworth, —
1850, Poems.
Robt. Southey, —1843,
Poems.
Marg. Blessington, —
1819, Novels.
Chas. Lamb, 1775—1834,
Poems, Essays.
Tlios. H. Lister, 1801-1842,
NovciB.
1700
Charles Bumey, d. 1841,
* History of Music.
1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808,
Biography.
E. D. Clarke, d. 1822,
C. J. Fox,'d. 1796, History.
W. Mitford, History of
Greece.
R. Heber, Travels, &c.
Major Rennel, Geography.
Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831,
Life of Leo X., &c.
Walter Scott, —1832,
History, Biography.
Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766—
1832, Hist, of England.
Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825,
Political Annals.
Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori-
ental Hist, and Travels.
Jas. Mill, —1836, Hist.
British India.
Robt, Morrison, —1834,
Travels, Philology.
Jas. Grahame, History of
United States.
John GiUies, 1747—1836,
History of Greece.
Basil Hall, 1788—1844,
Travels and Voyages.
Wm. Hone, —1842,
Every Day Book.
R. & J. Lander, 1834,
Travels in Africa.
SPECULATIVE AND SClEMTIFZa
N. Maskelyne d. 1811,
Astronomy.
G. L. Staunton, d. 1801,
Chinese Code.
W. Hersrhell, 1738—1822,
Astronomy.
1800 Arthur Young, 1741—1820,
Agriculture.
A. Rees, 1743—1825, Cyclo-
paedia.
Joseph Banks, 1743—1820,
Natural History.
Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo-
D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi-
cal Econo,*y'y.
C. Hutton, d. 1823, Mathe-
matics.
John Playfeir, d. 1819.
P. Elmsley, Philology.
T. WoUaston, Chemistry.
Thomas Young, Hierogly-
phics, &c.
T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity.
D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta-
physics.
Vicessimus Knox, 1752—
1821, Essays.
Malthus, Polit. Economy.
Wm. Hazlit, Critic and
Essayist.
Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849,
Essays, Criticism.
Archbish. Magee, d. 1831,
Divinity.
Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829,
Chemistry.
Jer. Bentham, d. 1832,
'Principles of Legisla-
tion.'
Adam Clarke, 1763-1832,
Divinity, Criticism.
Arch. Alison, 1757—1839,
Essays on Taste,
Francis Baily, 1774—1844,
Astronomy, &c,
Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837,
Theology.
Herbert Marsh, 1758—1839,
Theology.
Thos. Mitchell, 1783—1845,
Classic. Critic.
Robert Mudie, 1777—1842,
Scient. Miscellanies.
Sir E. Brydges, 1762—1837,
Miscellanies.
Wm. Cobbett, —1835,
Politics, &c.
J. Dalton, —1844, Che-
mist.
J. F. Daniell, -1845,
Chemist.
Sydney Smith, —1845,
Theology, Essays.
Chas. Bonnycastle, —
1840, Matnematics.
Thos. Chalmers, Theology,
and Political Economy.
HTERAE.Y CHRONOLOGY — GERMAN.
627
IMAGINATION.
1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773—1834,
Ethics.
L. E. Landon Maclean,
1804—1838, Novels and
Poems.
Wm. Maginn, 1793—1842,
Poems,
Marryatt, —1847, Nov-
John' Gait, 1779—1839,
Novels.
Wm. H. Ireland, Shaks.
Forgeries.
Lady Morgan, —184-
Novels,
Jas. Morier, 1780—
Novels.
Thos. Campbell, 1777-
1844, Poems.
Thos. Banim, 1800—1842,
Novels.
Henry F. Cary, 1772—1844,
Trans, Dante, &c.
1800
Southey, 1774—1843, Bio-
graphy.
Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844,
Travels.
Arch. Alison, History of
Europe.
Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842,
History of Rome.
Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770—
1842, Archaeology.
Thos. McCrie, 1772—1835,
Life of Knox.
Sir John Malcolm, History
Persia and India. ^
I. D'Israeli, 1766—1^8, Cu-
riosities of Literature.
Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Voy-
ages and Travels.
SPECULATIVE AND SCISNTIFIO.
1800 John Leslie, —1832,
Mathematician.
J. C. Loudon, 1783—1843,
Botany, Agricul., Archit.
John Bell, 1763—1825,
Anatomy & Physiology.
Olinthus Gregory, 1774—
1841, Mathematics and
Religion.
Robert Hall, 1764—1831,
Sermons.
Sir Chas. Bell, 1781—18^,
Anatomy and Physio-
GERMAN.
IMAGINATION.
800
Walafrid Strabo, d. 840,
Poems, Theology.
Otfried, Harmony of Gos-
pels in rhyme.
800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of] 800
Charlemagne, Annals.
SPKCULATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC.
Nithard, d. 853, History of
Wars of France.
Rabanus Maurus,776— S56,
Theology.
Gottschalk, d. 869, 'On
Predestination.'
900
Hroswitha, Let. Comedies.
Notger, Trans, of Psalms.
900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles.
Witikind, Hist, of Saxons.
900
Batherius, d. 974, Theolo.
gy, Grammar.
1000
Witpo, 'Praise of Henry
III.,' Biography.
Willeram, Francic Poems.
1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron,
of Saxon Emperors.
Hermannus Contractus,
Universal History.
Mar. Scotus, 1028—1086,
Chronicles.
Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi-
astical History.
Lambert, General History.
Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron.
Kosmas, 1045—1126, Histo-
ry of Bohemia.
1000
UOO
Henry of Veldeck, Minne-
singer.
UOO Berthold Constantiensis,
Universal History.
Otto, rf. 1158, Chronicle.
Helmold, rf. 1170, Chron.
of Slavi.
UOO Mangold, Theology.
628
THE WOKLD's FB.0GE.ESS.
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVB AND SQIEMTIFXO.
1200 Oiinther, Poems.
1200
Arnold of Lubeck, Chro-
nicle of Slavi.
1200
Frederic H., 1196-1254,
^De ArteVenandi.'
Epko of Repgow, ' Saxon
Mirror,' (Law).
John Semeca, Law.
Alb. Magtius, 1193—1280,
Natural Philosophy.
Freydank, Poems.
1300 RUdgerof Manesse, CoUec-
1300
1300
Hemy Frauenlob, Songs.
Boner, Fables.
Henrich von Rebdorf,
•Chronicle.
Heinrich von Hervorden,
Chronicle.
Jacob von Konigshofen,
Chronicle.
John Tauler, Sermons.
John Schildberger, History
John Huss, 1386-1416,
of Timour.
Theology.
1400
1400 Gobelin Persona, General
1400
Felix Hdrnmerlein, Satires.
History.
Windeck, Life of Sigis-
John von GmUnden, Astro-
mund.
nomy.
John Stadweg, Chronicle.
Hans von Rosenplut,
Peter von Andlo, de Im-
Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423
Poems.
perio Romano.
1461, Theory of Planets.
Regiomontanus, 1436—1476
Astron., Mathemat.
Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat.
Thomas k Kempis, 1380-
Heinrich von Allcmaar.
1471, Theology.
Gabriel Brie, d. 1495, The-
*ReinkedeVoss.'
Mar.Behhaim. Geography.
Breydenbach, Topogy.
Conrad Botho, Chronicle.
ology.
John Geyler, 1445-1510,
Conrad Celtes, 1459-1508.
Theology.
Latin Poems, History of
John Trithemius, 1462-
Nuremburg.
1516, Nat. Philosophy.
Reuchlin, 1454-1522, Phil-
Thos. Murner, 1475—1536,
» Rogues' Guild.'
ology,
1600
1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto-
1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452-
1528, Theol., Poems.
biography.
GrUnbeck, Lives of Em-
Melc. Pfinzing, 1481-1535,
perors.
Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His-
Holoander, rf. 1531, Law.
' Theuerdank.'
tory of Saxons, &c.
Com. Agrippa, 1486-1535,
M. Cther, 14^1-1546,
B. Pirkheimer, 1480-1530,
History, Poetry.
John Aventin, 1466-J534,
Theology.
Zwingle, 1484-^1531, The-
ology.
Melancthon, 1497-1560,
Anals of Bavaria.
Glareanus (H. L.) 1488-
Con. Peutinger, 1465—1547,
1563, Classics.
History and Geography.
John Canon, 1499-1538,
Theology.
Paracelsus, 1493-1541,
Comp. of History.
Chemistry.
Joac. Camerarius, 1500—
1574, Philology.
Conrad Gesner, 1516—1565,
John Sleidan, 1506-1556,
Universal History.
G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel-
Natural History.
Basil Faber. 1520-1576,
Thes. Erud. Schol. _
nam Sachs, 1494-1674,
Poems.
vetic Chronicle.
John Fischart, 1511-1581,
Gerard Mercator, 1512—
, Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586,
SUtiWB.
1594, Geography.
Theology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GERMAN.
629
IMAQINATION.
1500 G. Fabricius, 1516—1571,
Lat. Pms. Topography.
Rollenhagen, 1542—1609,
Froschmausler.
Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613,
Latin Poems.
Martin Opitz, 1597—1639,
Poems.
James Balde, 1603—1668,
Poems.
A. Gryphius, 1616—1664,
Tragedies.
Paul Fleming, 1609—1640,
Poems.
Lohenstein, 1638—1683,
Poems.
1700 C. Gryphius, 1649—1706,
Poems, Hist., Philology,
Von Canitz, 1654—1699,
Poems.
Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems.
Liscov, Satires.
J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766,
Poems, Trag., Criticism.
1500 Simon Schard, 1535—1573,
CoUec. German Hist.
John Pistorius, 1544—1607,
Collec. German Hist.
Marq. Freher, 1565—1614,
Hist. Germy. & France.
1600
P. Cluvier, 1580—1623,
Geography.
M. Goldast, 1576—1635,
History.
G. Calixtus, 1586—1656,
Ecclesiastical History.
Olearius, 1604—1685,
Travels.
S. von Puffendorf, 1631—
1694, History, Law.
D. G. Morhofi; 1639—1691,
Biography, History.
SPECULATIVB ANB flCIBNTIFlC.
1500 Wm.Xylander, 1632-1576,
Philology.
Wesenbeck, 1531—1586,
Fred. Sylberg, 1531—1696
Philology.
Theod. Beza, 1519— 160&,
Theology, Philology.
C. Ritterhuis, 1560—1613,
Law.
1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616,
Natural History.
J. Buxtorf, 1565—1621,
Philology.
John Kepler, 1571—1631,
Astronomy.
B. von Helmont, 1677—
1644, Chemistry.
C. Scioppius, 1576—1649,
Ars Critica.
John Bayer, Uranometria.
G. Barth, 1587-1668, Phil-
ology.
Sol. Glass, 1593—1656,
Philol. Sacra.
Otto Guerike, 1602—1686,
Air-Pump, &c.
Her. Conring, 160&-1681,
Antiquities.
Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702,
Numismatology.
John Schilter, d. 1706, An-
tiquities.
1700 H. Meibomius, 1638—1700,
History.
C. Cellarius, 1638—1707,
Geography, Antiq.
C. Frankenstein, 1661—
1717, History, Biog.
J. Amoldj 1665—1714, Ec-
clesiastical History.
J. G. von Eccard, 1670—
1730, General History.
J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736,
Bibliography.
H. Freyer, Gen. History.
B. G. Struve, 1671—1738,
History of Germany.
J. L. Mosheim, 1695— 1755,
Ecclesiastical History.
Hagedorn, 17(te-1754,
Fables.
Haller, 1708-1777, 'The
Alps.*
J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759,
Drama.
E. C. Kleist, 1715—1759,
Idylls.
Gellert, 1716—1769, Fa\)le8.
Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir.
A. F. BDsching, 1724-1793
Geography. |
1700 Ludolph, 1649-1711, PhU-
ology.
Leibnitz, 1646—1716, Ma-
thematics, Metaphysics.
C. Thomasius, •1656—1728,
F. Budaeus, 1667—1729,
Divinity.
G. E. Stahl, 1660-1734,
Chemistry.
P. Hoffman, 1660—1742,
Medicine.
J. Bemouilli, 1667—1747,
Mathematics.
B. Hederick, 1675-1748,
Philology.
J. M. Gessner, 1691—1761,
Philology.
A. G. Baumgarten, 1714—
1751, Ethics, Metaph.
J. J. Gessner, 1707—1787,
Numismatology.
G. F. Meyer, 1711—1777,
Philosophy.
F. W. von Gleicken, 1714-
1783, Nat. History.
J. Winkelmann, 1718—1768
Antiquity.
Leon. Euler, 1707—1783,
Mathematics.
680
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
XMAamATION.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFIO
1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs.
Klopstock, 1724—1803,
' The Messiah.'
ZachariflB, 1727—1777,
Comic Poems.
C. F. Weisse, Drama.
J. O. Zimmerman. 1728—
1795, ' On Solitude.'
Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals.
Ramler, 1725—1798. Odea.
Dusch, 1727—1788, Poems.
G. E. Lessinff, 1729—1781,
Drama, Fables,
S. Gessner. 1730—1788,
'Death or Abel.'
Wieland, 1733-1813, Ro-
mances, Poems.
Pfeffel, 1736—1809, Fables.
G. A. Biirger, 1748—1794,
Poems.
I. H. Voss, 1751—1826,
Novels.
F. Schiller, 1750-1805,
Drama.
Kotzebue, 1761—1819,
Drama.
Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama,
Tales, Poems.
1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol.
Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias-
tical History.
1800 F. Schlegel, 1773—1829,
Novels, Poetry, Hist.,&c.
Ernst Schultze, 1787—1817,
Elegies.
E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822,
A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760—
1831, Tales.
Kdmer, Poems.
L. von Amim, —1831
Poems, Novels.
C. Gatlerer, d, 1799, Hist.
J. W. von Archenholz,
1745-1812, ' Seven Years'
War.'
Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle-
siastical History.
Forster, d. 1798, Geogra-
phy.
A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1809,
History.
1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730-i
1780, Sermons.
J. A. E. Gotze, 1731—1786.
Entomology.
Im. Kant, 1724—1804,
Metaphysics.
1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni
versal History.
J. G. Eichhom, d. 1827,
History.
Schopenhauer,
Novels.
-1838,
Von Hammer, Orien. Hist.
B. G. Niebuhr, History.
Scholl, —1833, History.
C. O. Muller, —1840,
History, Archseology.
F.Rotteck, —1849, His-
tory.
H. Hase, -1812, His-
tory, Antiquities.
Semler, d. 1791, Theology.
Putter, Law of Nations.
Adelung, d. 1807, Phil-
ology.
Lavater 1741—1801, Phy.
siognomy.
Werner, Geology.
1800 Herder, 1741—1803, Philo-
sophy of History.
Fichte, d. 1819, Metaphy-
sics.
F. H. Jacobi, d. 1819, Me-
taphysics.
Blumenbach, Physiology.
Schelljng, Metaphysics.
Thaer, —1828, Agri-
culture.
Rosenmuller, —1855,
Theology, Criticism.
Gail, —1829, Philology.
Griesbach, —ISlfi, Phi-
lology.
Grotefend, —1836, Phi-
lology.
H. J. Klaproth, 1784-1835,
Philology.
F. Passow, —1833, Phi-
lology.
Heffel,^
pnysics.
-1831, Meta-
F. Accum,
—1838, Che.
mistry.
Mohs,
-1839, Minera-
logy.
G.A.Fawt,
-1841, Phi.
lology.
E. Bekker,
Philology.
-1841, Phi-
Buttmann,
lology.
C. T. Follen, —1840,
Theology, Essays.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — ^FRENCH.
eai
IMAGINATION.
SPBCULATIVB AND SOIBNTIFIO.
1800
Tieck, Poems, Novels.
1800 Augt. Neander, 1850,
Ecclesiastical History.
J. L. C. Heeren, —1842,
History.
H. Berghaus, Geography.
A., von Humboldt, Travels,
History.
1800 Gibers, —1840, Astro-
nomy.
Hahnemann,
—1843,
Homoeopathy.
A. W. Schlegel, —1845,
Criticism, Essays.
Humboldt, Science.
Liebig, Chemistry.
FRENCH.
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPBCULATIVB AND SCIBNTIPIO.
500 Venan. Jortunatus, Latin
Poetry.
500
Gregory of Tours, 554—595,
500
600
600 Marculfe, * Chartaa Re-
gales,' &c.
600
700
700 Fredegaire, Chronicle.
700
800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns,
Theology.
Servatus Lupus, d. 862,
Epistles.
Hincmar, d. 882, Epistles.
Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.'
800
Ado, d. 875, Chronicle.
800
Agobard, d. 840, Theology
Paschasius Radbert, 'Traih
substantiation.'
900
Adalberon, d. 1030, Poetry.
900 Flodoard, 896—966, Chron.
Dudon, History of Norman
Conquest in France.
900
1000
Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles.
1000 Almoin, d. 1008, History of
France.
1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry,
Mathematics, dec.
Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic,
and Astronomy.
Berengarius, d, 1088, Theo-
logy.
1100
Wm. of Poictiers, 1071-
1126, First Troubadour.
Hildebert, 1067-1133, Po-
etry.
Bechada, Norman Poetry,
* Gestes de Godefroi.'
1100 Guibert, 1058-1124, Histo-
ry of First Crusade.
Pierre Theutbode, History
of Crusades.
MarbodaBUs, d. 1123, Bio-
graphy.
Suger, 1082-1152, Life of
Louis le Gro8.
1000 Anselm, 1033-1109, Scho-
lastic.
Pierre Abelard, 1079-1142,
Theology.
Bernard of ClairvaiiT.
1091—1168, Mystic.
632
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
lUAOINATION.
1100
Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo-
Norm. Chron. in verse.
Rob. Wace, * Roman de
Rou.'
Fouque. a Troubadour.
Alexander of Bemai, Poet-
ry, Fables.
1200
John JEgidius, Poem on
Medicine.
William le Breton, ' Deeds
of Philip,' in verse.
P. Gautier, 'Alexandrieda.'
William de Lorris, 'Roman
de la Rose.'
Jean de Meun, Contin. of
* Roman de la Rose.'
Esteve de Bezier, Last
Troubadour.
1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred
History.
Geoffrey de Villehardouin,
* Conq. of Constantinople.
Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His-
tory of France in verse.
W. Rubruquis, Traveller.
Jean de Joinville, 1260 —
1318, Hist, of Louis IX.
1300 Peter Langtofl, Anglo-Nor-
man Chronicles.
Philippe of Vitri, Transla-
tion of Ovid.
1400
Alain Chartier, d. 1458,
Poetry.
Corbeil, Satire.
D'Auvergne, d. 1458, Po-
ems.
Clement Marot, 1463—1525,
Poems.
1600
F. Rabelais, 1483-1553,
Satires.
J. du BeUay, 1492-1560,
Poems.
Steph. Jodelle, 1532— 1573,
Odes, Tragedies, &c.
1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097—
1140, Geography, Histo-
ry, and Theology.
1300
John Froissart, 1337—1402,
Chronicles.
1400
Philip de Comines, 1445 —
1509, Hist, of his Times.
1500
SPECULATIVE AND 8CIENTIFI0.
1100
Peter Lombardus, d. 1164,
Theology.
Alain de I'lsle, d.
Theology, Ethics.
1202^
1200
Vincentius of Bwuvais,
Encyclopaedia.
Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271,
Theology.
1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine.
John of Paris, d. 1306, The-
ology.
W. Durand, d. 1333, Law.
W. Occam, d. 1347, Law.
1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425,
Astronomy.
John Gerson, 1363—1429,
Scholastic.
Raymund de Sebunda, d.
« 1432, Theology.
Henry of BaUna, d 1439,
Mystic.
James Lefevre, 1436— j.637,
Theology.
Wm. Budffius, 1467-1540,
Jurist.
Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543,
History of his Times.
Jaques Amyot, 1514—1593,
Translations.
1500 J. C. Scaligcr, 1484—1558,
Philology.
Du Bois, 1478— 1555, Anat.
Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559,
Philology.
P.Ramus,151&— 1572,Logic
Seb. CasteUio, 1516-1^,
Philology.
Jas. Cujacius, 1620—1590,
Lambinus, 1516—1672,
Commentaries.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — ^FRENCH.
633
XMAOXKATION.
1500 M. A. Muret, 1826—1585,
Poems, Criticisms.
Mich, de Montaigne, 1533—
1592, Essays.
Fran. Malherbe, 1556— 1628,
Odes.
1600 M. Reignier, 1573-1613,
Satires.
J. Chapelain, 1595—1674,
- I Pi " •
La Pucelle.'
P. ComeiUe, 1606—1684,
Drama.
St. Evremond, 1613—1703,
Literature.
Rochefoucault, 1603—1680,
Reflections.
Moliere, 1620-1673. Drama.
La Fontaine, 1621—1695,
Fables, Tales.
Segrais, 1624— 1701, Idyls.
T. Comeille, 1625—1709,
Drama.
M. de Sevigne, 1626—1694,
Letters.
J. Racine, 1639—1699,
Drama.
Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires.
1700 Regnard, lfrl7— 1709,'
Comedies.
Galland, 1646-1715, Tran.
of Arabian Nights.
Fenelon, 1651— 17 J 5, ' Tele-
machus,' &c. -
Deshoulieres, 1638—1694,
Elegies.
1500
J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609,
History, Criticism, &c.
J. A. ae Thou, 1553-1617,
History of France.
1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621,
History of France.
An. Du. Chesne. 1584-1640,
Collections ol Histories.
Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo-
graphia Sacra.'
Henry Spondanus, 1568 —
1643, History.
S. Guicheron, 1607—1664,
Hist, of House of Savoy.
Henri Valesius, 1603—1696,
Ecclesiastical Histoiy.
Adr. Valesius. 1607—1692,
' Deeds of the Franks.'
L. Moreri, 1643—1680,
Historical Dictionary.
Tillemont, 1637— 1698, Ec-
cle^astical History.
J. Marsollier, 1647-17!^,
History, various.
Fleuiry, 1663-1723, Eccle-
siastical History.
G. Daniel, 1649— 1728, His-
tory of France.
Vatincourt, 1653—1730,
Biography.
27*
SPEOULATIVB AND BGIBXTXFXC.
1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528— IG90,
Philology.
F. Vieu, 1640—1603, Al-
gebra.
Pierre Charon, 1543—1603,
Theology.
Isaac Casaubon, 1569—
160i, Philology.
1600
C. Salmasius, 1596—1652,
History and Criticism.
Dennis Petau, 1583-1652,
Chwiiology.
P. Gassendi, 1592—1666,
Philosophy.
Des Cartesj 1596- 1650,
Metaphysics, Ma;hem.
B. Pascal, 1623-1662,
Divinity.
D'Herbelot, 1626—1696,
Orientalist.
Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron.
Huet, 1630-1721. PhiloB'phy
Bourdaloue, 1632-1704,
Sermons.
La Bruyere, 163&-1696,
' Characters.'
Malbranche, 1633-1715,
' Search after Truth.*
1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706,
Dictionary.
Hardouin, 1646-1729,
Criticism.
And. Dacier, 1661-1722,
Philology.
Anne Dacier, 1661-1720,
Philology.
Toumefort, 1666-1708,
Botany.
Fontenelle, 1667-1766,
* Plurality of Worlcte.*
Montfaucon, 1666-1741,
Antiquities.
Massillon, 1663-1742,
Sermons.
t>84
THE world's progr4:ss.
ZMAOINATZON.
1700
J. B. Rousseau, 1671—1741,
Odes.
Crebillon, 1674—1762,
Tragedies.
Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747,
' Gil Blas.^
P. N. Destouches, 1680—
1754, Comedies.
J. B. Gr6court, 1683—1743,
Odes, Tales. &c.
Marivaux, 1688—1763,
Novels.
Voltaire, 1695—1778, Tra-
gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c.
J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778,
' Emile,' ' Heloise,' &c.
Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En-
cyclopedie,' Novels.
Bemis, 1715—1794, Poems.
Favart, d. 1762, Comic
Operas.
Louis Racine, d. 1763,
Poems.
J. J. Barthelemy, 171&-1795,
' Anacharsis.'
Marmontel, 1719—1799,
Tales.
Gresset, <f. 1777, Elegies.
Dorat, d. 1780, Novels.
Florian, 1755 -1794, Tales.
Beaumarchais, d. 1799,
Comedies.
1800 B. St. Pierre, »Paul and
Virginia.'
Madme. de Genlis, Novels.
Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807,
Delille,'rf. 1813. 'L'Homme
des Champs.'
Madame de Stael, 1768—
1817, ' Corinne,' &c.
H. de Balzac, 1799-1850,
Novels.
J. J. Boissaid, 174a-1831,
Fables.
1700 Vertot, 1655-1735, History.
Paul Bapin, 1661—1725,
History of England.
Bossuet, 1662—1704, His-
tory, Sermons.
C. Rollin, 1661—1741,
Ancient History.
C. I. F. Henaultj 1685-1770,
Chronicles, History.
C. Villaret, 1715—1766,
History of France.
L. P. Anquetil, 1723—1808,
History.
Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754.
Recueil d^Histoireks.
A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin
of Laws, Arts, &c.'
Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans.
of Herodotus.
Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient
History.
Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias-
tical History.
J. De Guignes. 1721—1800,
History of the Huns. '
D'Anville, 1702—1782,
G. Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist,
of East and West Indies.
C. F. X. Millot, 1726-1785,
History.
1800
Denon, d. 1825, Travels in
Egypt.
J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767-
1837,History.
Louis E. Bignon, —1841,
History.
•L J. Jacotot, 1770-1840,
Education.
BPECULATlVm A2n> flOIBNTIFIO
1700
Folard, 1669-1752, Stra-
tegy.
Saurin, 1677-1730, Ser-
mons.
Montesquieu, 1698—1755,
' Esprit des Loix.'
Reaumur, 1683—1757,
Natural History.
Houbigant, 1686—1783,
Criticism, Philology.
Girard, d. 1748, 'Synony-
mes.'
Buffon, 1707-1788, Natural
History.
De Brosses, 1709—1777,
Philology, History.
Helvctius, 1715—1771,
'Del'Esprit.'
D'Aubenton, 1716—1799,
Natural History.
N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law
of Nations.'
D' Alembert, d. 1783, ' En-
cyclopedie.'
La Grange, Mathematics.
Bailly, 1736-1793, Hist.,
Astronomy.
Lavoisier, 1743—1794,
Chemistry.
Montucia, 1725-1799,
Mathematics.
Turgot, Polit. Economy.
Mirabeau, Politics.
Fourcrol. d. 1809, Chem.
J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astron.
1800 Volnev, 1755-1820, Travels,
Philology, &c.
HaUy, d. 1822, Crystallo
La Place, d. 1827, Mathe-
matics,
Guyton Morveau. Chem.
Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hist.
Dumont, Legislation.
P. L. Courier, Politics.
J. F. Audoin, 1797-1841,
Zoology.
J. E. D. Esquirol, 1772—
1840, on Insanity. __,
Chas. Fourier, 1772-1837,
Socialism.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
635
IMAaiMATION.
1800
1800 Mad. Junot, 17&i-1839,
Biography.
A.L.G.Laborde, —1842,
Travels.
Las Cases, —1842, Biog-
raphy.
J. Mjchaud, —1839, His-
tory.
Bourrienne, —1834 ' Life
of Napoleon.'
A. Coilfe, —1838, Voyage
k Tembuctou, &c.
Champollion le Jeune,
1832, Antiq. Egypt.
J. P. A. Remusat, —1832,
History.
SPECULATIVB AND 6CIBMTIFIC.
1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 179&-I842,
Metaphysics.
A. L. de Jussieu, 1748-1836,
Botany.
S. F. Lacroix, 1765-1843,
Mathematics.
Lamarck, —1829, Natural
History.
Legendre, 1753—1833, Ma*
thematics.
Louis, —1837, Surgery.
Broussais, —1838, Medi-
cine, Physiol.
Chaptal, —1832, Chem-
istry.
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
P. is prefixed for Portugitese,
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPKCULATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC.
500
500
500 Anian, Law.
Fulgentius Ferraadus,
Canon Law.
Martin, d. 580, Ethica.
600
600 John of Biclair, d. 620
Chronicle.
Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de
Goth.
600
Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics.
800
800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr-
ology.
Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius.
800
P. 1 100 Egaz Monez, Songs.
P. Gonzalo Hermiguez,
Songs.
1100
1100
1200
Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes.
1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1215,
History of Spain.
1200
R. de Penafort, 1175—1276,
Decretals.
Alphonso X., d. 1284,
Astronomy, Alchemy.
Raimund LuUo, 1236—
1315, Theology, Chem-
istry, &c.
1300 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro-
mances.
1300
1300
1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans.
Virgil and Dante.
E. de Villena, 1434, Moral
Drama.
Juan de Mena, 1412—1456
Poems.
L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458,
Poems.
1400 Diez de Games, Biography.
1400
J. de Torquemada, d. 1468,
Sermons, Criticism.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
XMAOINATION.
1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics.
Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral
Drama.
1600 Lope de Rueda, Comedies.
Torres Naharro, Comedy.
Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son-
nets.
P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues.
Garcilaso de la Vega,
1503—1536, Poems.
P. San de Miranda, 1495—1558,
Lyrics.
Juan de la Cueva, Art of
Poetry.
P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557,
Comedy.
J. de Montemayor, 1520—
1561, Romance.
Ant. Ferrelra, 1528—1569,
Elegies.
Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575,
Poems, History.
P. Camoens, 1524—1579, ' The
Lusiad.'
Luis de Leon, 1527—1591,
Lyric Poems.
Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578,
Classical Poems.
P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro-
mances, Pastorals, &c.
P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595,
Epigrams. Pastorals.
O. de Castillejo, d. 1596,
Romantic Poems.
A. de ErciUa, 1533—1600,
' Araucana.'
Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589,
Tragedy.
L. de Argensola, 1565 —
1613, Tragedy, History.
P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems.
Cervantes, 1549—1616,
* Don Quixote.'
SPBCULATIVB AND SCIBMTIFIO.
1400 R. de Zamora, 1407—1470, 1400
History of Spain.
Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of
Ferdinand and Isabella.
1500
1600
P.
Bart, de Argensola, 1566 —
1631, Tragedy, History.
F. Quevedo, 1570—1645,
Tales, Satires.
L. Congora, 1585-1638,
Pofiius
Lope de'Vega, 1562—1635,
Drama.
J. P. deMontalyan, d. 1639,
Tragedy.
M. de Madri^I, Romances.
Bfan. de Fana e Sousa, d.
1649, Pastoral Poems.
Damian Goez, History,
Travels.
Joao de Barros, d. 1570,
* Hist, Portugu. in India.'
A. Zarate, 'Discov. of
Peru.'
A. de Morales, 1513—1590,
History of Spain.
J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist.
of the West Indies.
Gonsalvo lUescas, d. 1580,
Lives of the Popes.
Luis Marmol, Description
of Africa •
Jeron. Zurita, 1513—1580,
History of Arragon.
Estevan Garibay, History
of Spain.'
Juan Mariana, 1537—1624,
Hist., Chronology, &c.
Blanca, History of Spain.
J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of
China.
Fras. Ximenez, 1437-
Polyglot Bible.
-1517,
1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565—
1625, History of Spain.
P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617,
History of Augustines.
P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of
John III.
P. B. de Brito, 1570-1617,
History of Portugal.
A. de Andrada, d. 1633,
Travels in Thibet and
Cathay.
Pru. de Sandoval, History.
Jayme Bleda, History of
Moors in Spain.
1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533,
Ethics.
J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540,
Philosophy, Theology.
Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544,
Ethics, Epistles.
P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law.
Ant. Agostino, 1516—1586,
Theology, Law.
P.
S. des Brosses, 1523—1600,
Grammar.
D. de Andrada, 1528—1535,
Theology.
Luis Molma, 1535—1600,
Metaphysics.
J. Guevara, 1541—1623^
Publicist.
J. Valverda, Anatomy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
637
IMAOINATIO:?.
1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646,
' El Diablo Ck)xuelo.'
Vic. Espinel, 1545—1634,
Elegies.
Calderon, 1601—1667,
Drama.
L. UUoa, d. 1660, Poems.
A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663,
Sonnets.
Matheo Ribeiro, Romance.
M. de Villegas, 1595-1669,
Anacreontics.
F. de Vasconcellos, Poems,
R. de Macedo, d. 1682,
Poems.
Viol, do Ceo, 1601—1693,
Poems.
F. da Castanheira, Novel.
A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son-
nets.
1700 Fran. Candamo, d. 1709,
Drama.
Ant, de Zamora. Comedy.
P. Xav. de Meneses, 1673—
1743, * Henriqueide,'
Epic Poem.
Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754.
Art of Poetry.
Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771,
Fables, &c.
P. A. de Barros Pereira,
Poems.
P Manoel da Coste, Poems.
V. Garcia de la Huerta,
Tragedy.
P. P. Correo Garcao Lyric
Poems.
Jjeon de Arroyal, Odes.
P. Paulino de Vasconcellos,
Sonnets.
Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics,
P. Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy.
1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811,
♦ Agrarian Law.'
P. Tol. da Almeida, Satires.
Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828,
Comedies,
M. Garcia de Villanueva,
* On the Theatre.'
J. H. Davila, General Lit-
erature.
1600
SPBOULATIVB AMD BCIBNTSnC
1600
CAcuna, 1597— 1641,* De-
scrip, of River Amazon.
E. de Almeyda, d. 1646,
History of Ethiopia.
J. F. de Andrada, 1597—
1657, Life of .John de
Castro, Comic Poetry.
Nic. Antonio, 1617—1672,
Bibliotheca Hispanica.
P. Alb. Coelho, d. 1658,
' Wars of ..Brazil.'
Ant. deSolis, 1611— 1686,
Hist, of Conq. Mexico.
1700 J, Ferreras, 1652-1735,
History of Spain.
Barbosa Maehado, Diction-
ary of Learned Men.
Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist.
of Castilian Poetry.
Figoeireda, Eccl. History.
Munoz, Hist, of America.
Cavanilles, Annals.
1700
Feyjoo, 1765, Ethlcfl, Criti-
cism.
A. UUoa, 1716-1795, Matli.
ematician.
1600 J. A. Llorente, History of
Inquisition.
Jose Antonio Conde, His-
tory of Moors in Spain.
Ruiz, Botany.
Pavon, Flora Peruvians.
J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790,
Natural Philosophy.
Felix d« Azara. Zoologr.
J. N.de Azara, 1781— UKM|
Antiquity.
1800
638
THE world's progress.
DUTCH.
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND BCIEHTIFIO
1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235-
1300, Poems, ' Rymby-
bel.»
Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron.
1200
1200
1300 Jan van Helen, Poems,
1300
1300
Chronicles.
Heij. van Holland, Poems.
Claes Willems, Poems.
Gerard Groot, Theology.
1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Bcethius.
1400 EdmundDinter, d. 1448,
1400
Chronicles of Brabant.
p. vander Heyden, 1393—
1473, Chronicles.
J. W. Gransfo«t, Theo.
Dirk van Munster, ♦ Chris-
tian Mirror.'
Rud. Agricola, 1442-1485,
Lambert, Goetman, ' Mir-
ror of Youth.'
Philosophy, Hist., &c.
1500
1500
1500 Erasmus, 1467-1536, The-
ology, Literature, &c
A. Byns, Religious Poems.
Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and
Prose.
J. Secundus, 1511-1536,
Amatory roems.
Dirk Koomhert, 1522—
S. Pighius, 1520-1604,
1590, Transl. Homer.
♦Roman Annals.'
P. van Mamix, Odes,
Songs.
R Visscher, Epigrams.
Hendrick Spieghel, Didac-
J. Heumius, 1543-1601,
Medicine.
C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic-
tic Poems.
•
tionary.
Justus Lipsius, 1547—1606,
Philology.
Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633,
Hydrostaucs, Mathem.
H. Erpenius, 1584-1624,
A. Schott, 1552—1629, His-
tory of Spain.
Orientalist.
1600 G. Brederode, 1585-1637,
1600
1600
Comedies, &c.
D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586—
1626, Religious Poems.
Daniel Heins. 1580-1655,
Poems, Philology.
J. Cats, 1577—1660, Drama.
P. C. Hooft, 1587—1647,
H. de Groot (Grotius),
Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of
the Netherlands.
1583—1645, Hist., Theol-
ogy, Poetry, &c.
G. van Baerle (Barlaeus),
1584—1648, Latin Poems.
J. Golius, 1596—1667, On.
Just van Vondel, 1587—
entalist.
1679, Tragedies.
Voetius, 1589-1676.
M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso.
Polemics.
Jan van Heemskerk, 'Ar-
Beverwyk, 1594—1647,
cadia.'
Medicine.
J. Westerbaen, 1599-1669,
Diemerbroek, 1609-1674,
Epigrams.
Anatomy.
LITEHARY CHRONOLOGY ^DUTCH.
639
IMAGINATION.
Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687,
Epigrams.
Jer. Decker, 1610—1666,
Elegies.
D. Joncktijs, d. ]654, Ama-
tory Poems.
Nicholas Heins, 1620—1681,
Poems, Philology.
Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone
of Wit.'
Jan Vos, Drama, Epi-
grams.
Reinier Anslo, 1622— 16G9,
' Plague of Naples.'
SPECITLATIVK AND SCISNTITIO.
1700 P. Francius, 1645—1701,
Latin Poetry.
J. A. Vander Goes, 1647—
1648, Drama.
Eliz. Wolff, Novels.
Loosjes, Novels.
Bellamy, 1757-1786, Odes,
Klein, Lyrics.
Van Alphen, Odes.
1800
Hincopen, Odes.
Helmers, d. 1831, Poems
Nieuwland, Poems.
Borger, Oaes.
Bilderdyk, Dramas, Odes,
&c.
Ger. Brandt, 1626—1685,
Hist, of Reformation.
Cau, Collect, of Batavian
History.
J. G. Graevius, 1632—1703,
Roman Antiquities.
J. Perizonius, 1631—1715,
History.
1700
J. Gronovius, 1645—1716,
Greek Antiquities.
P. Bondam, Collection of
Batavian History.
Simon Styl, History of
Netherlands.
1800
Te Water, History.
Engelberts, Ancient Hist,
of Netherlands.
J. F. Gronovius, 1611—
1671, Philology.
J. Leusden, 1614—1699,
Philology.
F. Burman, 1628-1679,
Theology.
Chr. Huygens, 1629—1695,
Mathem., Mechanics.
B. Spinoza, 1632—1677,
Theology.
Swammerdam, 1637-- 1680,
Natural History.
A. Leuwenhoek, 1632—
1723, Natural History.
1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731,
Anat.
G. Bidloo, 1649-1713,
Anat.
C. Vitringa, 1659—1722,
Theology.
Binkerschoek, 1663—1743,
H. Boerhaave, 1668—1738,
Medicine.
Hemsterhuis, 1685—1766,
Philology.
A. Schultens, 1686—1750,
Philology.
Gtavesande, 1688—1742,
Mathematics.
Chr. Hecht, 1696—1748,
Philology.
B. S. Albmus, 1683-1771,
Anatomy.
Oudendorp, 1696—1761,
Philology.
W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768,
Law.
D. Gaubius, 1705—1780,
Medicine.
Hoogeveen, 1712—1794,
Philology.
G. van Swieten, 1700—
1772, Medicine.
P. Camper, 1722—1789,
Anatomy.
D. Ruhnken, 1723—1793,
Philology.
Valckenaer, Philology.
1800 D. Wvttenbach, d, 1808,
Philology.
Van Kampen,*StatisUc8.
640
THE WORLD*S PROGRESS.
XMAOINATION.
PAOT.
SPBCULATIVB AND SOIENTIPIO.
Tollens, Poems.
Da Ctosta, Sacred Poems.
Wilderbosch, Odes.
Kluits, Hist, of Holland.
Westendorp, History.
Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist.
De Jonge, Antiquities.
Hamaker, Orientalist.
Vander Palm, Literature.
SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND.
S., Sweden; D., Denmark; Ic, Iceland.
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO.
Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems.
900
900
Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads.
Ic. S«mund, b. 1156, The
Elder Edda.
1100
Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice-
land.
D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d.
12(M, Hist, of Northern
Nations.
D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark.
1100
D. Sunesen, Jurist
D. Axel, Theology.
Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson.rf.l241,
Younger Edda, Hist,
of Norway.
Ic. Suerron, Tales.
1200
D. Sturla Thoridsen, History
of Norway.
1200
1400
1400
S. Eric Olai, History of Goths
and Swedes.
1400
S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430,
Instruction to Kings and
Princes.
1600
1500*
S. John Magnus, d. 1544,
Hist, of Sweden.
S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of
Northern Nations.
S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599,
History North of Europe.
Ic. Am. Jonas, 1&45— 1640,
Hist of Iceland, &c.
1500
D. Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601,'
Astronomy.
D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy.
1600
D. Anders Arrebo, 6. 1587,
Religious Poetry.
D. Anders Bording, b. 1619,
Poems.
& Stiemlyelm, Epic Poem,
* Hercules.'
1600
D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591—1640,
Danish Hist.
1600
S. P. Kirsten, 1577-1640,
Orientalist.
D. G. Bartholine, 1585-1629,
Anatomy, Theology.
D. Ole Worm, 1588-1664, An-
tiquities, Philo.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICELAND. 641
IMAOINATION.
SPECULATIVE AMD SCIENTIFIO.
Ic. Torfseus, 1639—1780, Hist,
of Norway.
S. Ol. Rudbeck, 1630—1702,
Botany, Anat., &c.
D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634.
Hymns.
D.
L.Holberg, 1684— 1754,
Drama, Satire, Hist.
Ch. Falster, 1690—
1752, Satirist.
OlofDalin, 1708—1763,
Poetry, History.
1700
John Penngskiold, 1654—
1720, History.
D. Ame Magnussen, b. 1663,
Collec. Hist.
D. Albert Thura, Hist.
D. Hans Gram, d. 1748, His-
tory.
Langebek, d. 1775, ColleQ.
Danish History.
Pontoppidan, d. 1764, Ori-
gines Havnienses.
Lagerbring, d. 1781, His-
tory.
D.
D.
D.
D.
S.
D.
D.
D.
S.
Sneedorf, 1724-
Poems.
■1764,
TuUin, Lyrics.
John Ewald, 1743—
1781, Tragedy, Lyrics.
J. H. Wessel, Humor-
ous Poems.
Bellerman, 1741—1796,
Lvrics.
H. tode, 1736—1806,
Dramas, Fables.
Samsoe, 1759—1796,
Tragedies.
P. A.Heiberg, 6.1758,
Drama.
S. Elgstrom, d. 1810,
Poems.
P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798,
Hist, of Denmark.
1700
D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635—1703,
Phys., Mathera. •
Linnaeus, 1707—1778,
Botany.
Wallerius, d. 1785,
Mineralogy.
D. Oeder, Flora Danica.
S. Ihre, Dictionary.
Ic. 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819,
Transl. Milton
D. C. L. Sander, Dramas.
D.
D.
D.
S.
S.
s.
Jens. Baggesen, d.
1826, Lvrics.
Oehlenscnlager,
Poems.
B. S. Ingermann,
Lyrics.
Atterbone, Poems.
Tegner, Romances, &c.
F.Bremer Novels.
1800
D. Malte Brun, d. 1826, Geog-
raphy.
S. Thorild Travels.
Afzelius, Iceland Records,
S. Hallenberg, History.
S. Granberg, Statistics.
Blexell, Topography.
1800
S. Berzelius, Chemistry.
D. Rask, Onentalist.
S. Wodderstadt, ' On Yellow
Fever.'
S. Liliegren, Northern An-
tiquities.
S. Norberg, Orientalist.
J. F. Blumenbach,
1840, Naturalist.
642
THE world's progress.
POLISH.
XMAQINATION.
FACT.
SPEOULATIVK AND SCIEKTIFIO
1200
1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226,
History of Poland.
Boguphalus, d. 1253,
Chronicle of Poland.
Martin Polonus, d. 1278,
Chronicle of Popes and
Emperors.
1200
Vitellio, Optics.
1400
1400 Dlu^lossus, 1415-1480,
History of Poland.
1400
1500
Kochanowski, 1530-1584,
1500
Cawalezewskij Chronicles.
Bielski, Chronicles.
Stryjkowski, Chron. of Po-
land and Russia.
1500
N. Copernicus, 1472—1543,
Astronomy.
Lucas Gornicki, Ethics.
Rey of Naelowic, 1515—
1568, Ethics.
1600
Sarbiewski, 1595-1&40,
Latin Poetry.
•
1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637,
Ecclesiastical Annals.
Lubienetski, 1623—1675,
History of Reformation.
1600
John Maccov, d. 1M4, The
ology.
Przipcov, 1590—1670, The-
ology.
1700
Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po-
etry and History.
1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland.
Mizler, Do.
1700
ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman-
ces.
Boguslawski, Drama.
Bronikowski, Novels.
Bematowicz, Novels.
Bulgarin, Novels.
Mickiewicz, Poems.
Odyniec, Drama.
1800
I^ch Szmyma, Travels.
Potocki, Travels.
1800
Linde, Lexicon.
RUSSIAN.
[The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. Almost
rll books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly
differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the
other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-oflBce in Russia was established
in 1553.]
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIPIO.
1000
1000
Neetorof Kiew, 1056-1115,
Chronicles of Russia.
1000 Yaroelaf, Code of Laws.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — RUSSIAN.
6^
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPBCULATIVK AND BCIBNTIFIO.
1100
The Expedition of Ighor, a
celebrated Poem, author
Unknown.
1100 Theodosius,d. 1120, Annals.
Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro-
nicies of Russia.
Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206,
Chronicles of Russia.
1100
1200
1200 John of Novgorod, History
of Russia.
1200
[The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia
from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit of
knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.]
1500
1500
1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws.
1600
1600
1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The-
ology, Spiritual Dramas.
Simeon of Polotsk, Poems,
Spiritual Dramas.
1700
1700 Khilkoir; History of Russia.
1700 Theophanes, Seimons.
V. Tatischett, d. 1750,
Chronicles of Russia.
Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati-
rical Poems.
Lomonosoff, 1711—1765,
Poetry, History, Science.
Tredianoffski, Poems.
Cherbatoff, History.
Popofski, Transl. Pope.
Golikoff, History.
Sumarokoff, 1718—1777,
Drama.
KheraskofF, 1733—1807,
'TheRussiad.'
Plato, 1737—1812, Sermona.
Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl.
the Iliad. *
P. S. Pallas, 1741— 181L
Petroff, 1736-1799, Transl.
Natural History.
the Eneid.
Kniajnin, 1742-1794,
Drama.
J. Khemnitzer, 1744-1784,
Fables.
Klushin, Comedies.
Ephimieff, Comedies.
Ablesimoff, Operas.
G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816,
Muravieff, 1757—1816, His-
Lyric Poetry.
tory, Didactics.
H. Bogdanovitch, 1743-
Eugenius, History.
1803,' Dushenka,' Poems,
Vizin, 1745—1792, Come-
dies, Tales.
Nicoleff, Tragedies.
1800 Maikotr, Comic Poems.
1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History
1800 Shishkoff, Criticism.
Dmitrieff, Lyrics, Fables.
of Russia.
Ozeroff, d. 1816, Tragedies.
Kachenofski, History.
G. .Glinka, History.
P. Sumarokoff, Poems,
Tales.
V. A. Jukofski, b. 1783,
Poems.
Augustin, SermoM.
Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires.
Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis-
Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul-
covery.
lus.
Gretch, History of Russian
Gneditch, Transl. Iliad,
Literature.
Odes.
Timkowski, Journey to
Kryloff, Fables.
China.
X
644
THE world's progress.
ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH.
P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian.
IMAQINATION.
60C Mahomet, Koran.
Lebid, 623—757, Poems.
Zohair, Poems.
Kais' El Ameri, or Amrul-
kais, Poems.
600
700
700
Abun Massab, Poems.
Abunowas,?6a— 810, Poems.
Rehashi, Poems.
Acu Obeid, d. 838, Fables.
SPECULATIVB AKD SCISNTIF a
600
700 Ja'far, Chemistry.
Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The-
ology.
Muham. ben Omar, History.
Aharun, Medicine.
800
800
A.Temain, 804-84.5, Poems.
Bochteri, 821-582, Anthol.
Abu Mohammed Abdallah,
Literature.
Wahab, Travels.
Abuzeid, Travels.
I. Kotaibah, d. 889, History.
Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist.
Honain ben Isaac, d. 874,
Translations from Greek.
800 Asmai, 740—830. Theology.
Kendi, Philosophy.
J. ben Serapion, Medicine.
Almamon, Astronomical
Tables
Bahali, d. 835, Etymology.
Alfragan, Astronomy.
Nasir Khosru, Metaphys.
Albumazar, 805—885, Ma-
thematics, Astronomy.
Bochari, 810-870, ^T
Sahih,' Traditions.
Geber, Chemistry.
^Tht
900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems.
Almotanabbi, d. 9^5,
Poems
900
P. 1000 Ferdusi, 982—1020,
'Shah Nameh,' Epic
Poem.
Abul Ola, 973—1067,
Poems.
Said ben Batrik, 876—937,
General History.
Eutychius, History.
Massudi, rf. 957, History
and Geography.
Ibn Haukal, Geography.
1000 Almuyadad^ History of
Saracens m Sicily.
900 Albategni, Astronomer.
Rases, d. 922, Medicine.
Ben Musa, Mathematics.
Azophi, Astronomy.
Alfarabi, rf. 954, Aristo-
telian Philosophy.
Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo-
telian Philosophy.
1000 Achmet, Treatise on
Dreams.
Ibn Mesua, Medicine.
Avicenna, 930—1038,
Philosophy, Medicine.
Abulcasis, Medicine.
Jelaleddin, Correction of
Calendar.
Arzachel, Astronomy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ^ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. ^45
IMAOINATION.
PACT.
SPBCULATIVK AND SOIBMTIFIO.
1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems.
Hairi, 1054—1121, Moral
Poems.
P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems.
P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems.
P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems.
Jaafar ebn Tofail, d. 1198,
«Hai ben Yokdan,' a
Novel.
I, Elfaredh, d. 1234, Poems.
1100
Algazel, Antiquities, &c.
Ben Idris, b. 1099, Geog.
1100 Gazali, 1058-1112, Ariato.
telian Philosophy.
Alhazin, Optics.
Tabriz!, d. 1136, Commen*
taries.
Alchabit, Optics, Astron.
A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic.
Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo.
teliaa Philosophy.
1200
P. Saadi, 1193—1291, ' Gulis-
tan,' ' Bostan.'
Elfaragi, Poems.
1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin.
Abdollatif, Topography of
Egypt.
Abuldem, d, 1244, History.
El Harawi, Travels.
Abulfarage. 1226—1286,
Universal History.
Elmacin, d. 1302, History
of Saracens.
P. Fadlallah, History of Mo-
guls.
1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm,
Caswin, d. 1274, Natural
History.
Beithar, d. 1246, Botany,
Medicine.
P. Nasireddin, 1201—1273,
Astronomy.
1300
P. Hafix, d 1395, Odes.
1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1333,
Geography. History.
Novairi, d. 1331, Universal
History.
Mohammed Ibn Batuta,
Travels.
Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358,
Geography.
AbuShameh,6. 1299,Hist.
P. Turan Shah, d. 1377, Hist,
Jafei, d. 1368, Biography.
1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran.
Firuzabadi, 1329-1414,
' The Camoos.'
1400
P. Jami, d. 1486, Poems.
P. 1400 AH Yezdi Sherifeddin,
Life of Tamerlane.
Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist.
Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of
Timur.
Baccai, d. 1480, Biography.
P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond,
Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474.
T. Baber, d. 1530, Autobio-
graphy.
1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan,
Dictionary.
Ulug Beg, 1393-1444,
Astronomy, Chronology
Babacushi, d. 1481,
Politics.
1500 Alhassan, Description of
Africa.
Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni-
versal History.
1500
Babacushi, d. 1566, MoraU
X
646
THE world's progress.
IMAOINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND BCIBNTIPia
1600
1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India.
Abulgazi, 1605—1663, Hist.
of Tartars.
T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675,
History.
P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph.
Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani
Kata,' Dictionary.
ITOO
P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An-
nals of Hindostan.
1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar.
UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA.
IMAaiNATION.
PACT.
SPKCULATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC.
1600
1600
1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627,
Sermons, &c.
Wm. Hubbard, 170i, Hist.
John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol.
Cotton Mather, 1662-1728,
of Massachusetts.
Sermons, ' Magnalia,'&c.
1700 John Adams, 1705—1740,
1700 Inc. Mather, 1723, ' History
1700 Beni. Colman, d. 1747,
Theology,
Poems.
of War with Indians.'
Benj. Church, 1739—1776,
Thos. Prince, d. Ylhl^ Hist.
Jona. Edwards, d. 1757,
Poems.
of New England.
Theology.
Wm. Livingston, 1723—
Samuel Davies, d. 1761,
1790, Poems.
Sermons.
John Trumbull, 1750-1831,
John Clayton, d. 1773,
*McFingal,' &c.
Joel Barlow, 1755—1812,
Botany.
Cadwallader Golden, 1688-
♦ The Columbiad.'
1776, History of the Five
Nations of Indians.
John Blair Linn, 1777—
John Bartram, d. 1777,
1801, Poems.
Botany, Travels.
Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780,
Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790,
Hist, of Massachusetts.
Theology.
•
Benjamin Franklin, 1706—
1790,Natural Philosophy,
Politics, &c.
Jas. Otisjrf, 1783, Politics.
John Hancock, 1793,
Politics.
John Witherspoon, d. 1794,
Theology, Politics.
Patrick Henry, d. 1796,
David Rittenhouse, d. 1796,
Politics.
Astronomy.
Samuel Adams, 1803,
Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His-
tory of N. Hampshire,
Politics.
Samuel Hopkins, 1721—
Amer. Biog. &c.
1803, Theology.
Fisher Ames, d. 1808,
Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist.
of Massachusetts Bay.'
Politics.
Isaac Backus, 1806, Church
History of N. England.
1800 Clias. B. Brown, d. 1810,
1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist.
1800 Thos. Paine, 1737—1809,
Politics, *Age of Reason,'
' Rights of Man,' &c.
Jos. S. Buckminster, d.
Novels.
ofxMaine. .
Robt. Treat Paine, 1773—
1811. 'Invention of Let-
David Ramsay, d. 1812,
ters,* 'The Ruling Pas-
'Life of Washington,'
1812, Theology.
Bion,* and other Poems.
'American Revolution,'
Alex. Hamilton, 1757—
•Universal History.'
1804, Politics.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA.
647
IMAGINATION.
1800 Paul Allen, 1775—1826,
< Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist.
of Am. Re vol.]
1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813,
'American Ornithology.'
Hugh Williamson, d. 1818,
Hist, of N. Carolina.
Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815,
Botany.
J. G. C. Brainard, d. 1826,
Poems.
Wm. Wirt, 1772-1834,
'British Spy.'
Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832,
Poems,
J. Q. Adams, 1767-1^7,
Poems.
Washington Allston, 1779-
1843, Painter, Poet, and
Novelist.
Timothy Flint, 1780-1&10
Novels.
Jas. A. Hillhouse, 178
1841, Poems.
Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840,
Poems, Miscellan., Polit,
R. H. Wilde, 1789—1840,
Poems, Researches or
Tas*), &c.
E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poems,
Tales.
SPECULATIVB AND SCXSNTIFZO.
1800
Wm. Bartram, d. 1823,
Botany, Travels.
Jededian Morse, d. 1826,
Geog,, Statistics, dec.
Nathl. H. Carter, 1788-
1830, ' Letters from Eu-
rope.'
Edmund D. Griffin, 18(M—
1830, Travels in Europe,
Lectures on Literature,
«fec.
John D. Godman, d. 1830,
Anatomy, Natural Hist.,
&c.
John Marshall, 1755—1835,
Life of Washington, &c.
Jno. Armstrong, 1758-1843,
'War of 1812.'
Abiel Holmes, 1763— 1837,
Annals of America.
Timothy Flint, 1780—1^40,
Hist, of Mississ. Valley.
A. S. Mackenzie, —1849,
Travels in Spain, &c.
Qouvemeur Morris, 178^-
1816, Politics.
Timothy Dwight, 1752—
1817, ' Theology Explain-
ed and Defended.'
Levi Frisbie, 1784—1822,
Moral Philosophy.
Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822,
Law, Politics.
Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835,
Law.
W. E. Channing, 1780—
1842, Sermons, Criticism.
Thomas Jefferson, 1743—
1826, Politics, Philos.
John Adams, 1735—1826,
Politics.
John M. Mason, D. D.,
1770—1829, Divinity,
Sermons, &c.
John H. Hobart, D. D.,
1776-1830, Sermons, &c.
Jos. Story, 1779—1845,
Law.
Henry Wheaton, 1782—
1848, Law.
Edw. Livingston, 1764—
1836, Criminal Code, &c.
David Hosack, 1769—1835,
Medicine.
Jas. Madison, 1751—1836,
Politics.
Alex. H. Everett, 1790—
1847, Essays.
R. Harlan, 1796—1843,
Natural History.
James Kent, 1763—1847,
Comment, on Am. Law.
Hugh S. Legare, 1797-
1843, Miscellanies.
Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me-
taphysics.
Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849,
Ethnology, Philology.
J. C. Calhoun, 1782—1850,
Politics, Speeches.
HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS,
WITH THE
HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIQUITY.
Abfaria^ a Scythian, priest of Apollo.
Abeofnct^ a goddess of voyages, &c.
Abreta*nua, a surname of Jupiter.
A'broity a very voluptuous Grecian.
Aby'la^ a famous mountain in Africa.
AcanUha, a nymph beloved by Apollo.
Acas'tiis^ the name of a famous hunter.
AceUus, one of the priests of Bacchus.
Achoi'meties, the first king of Persia.
AchaUes, a trusty friend of iEneas.
Ach'eron^ a son of Titan and Terra, changed into
a river of hell for assisting the Titans in their
war against Jiipiter.
Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and
Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip-
ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in
vulnerable in every part except his right
heel, by which she held him ; a/ter signaliz-
- ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor,
as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by
Paris with an arrow.
Acid'alia and ArmaUa^ names of Venus.
Acidaflus^ a famous fountain of Bceotia.
A'cw, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus,
because he rivalled him in the affections of
Galetea.
Admon^ a famous king of the Titans.
Acfratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens.
A ^t<Bon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally
discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned
into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds.
Adme^tua, a king of Thessaly.
Ado^nia, tne incestuous offspring of Cinyras and
Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by
Venus and Proserpine.
Adraa^teaj the goddess Nemesis.
^'acusj one of the infernal judges.
uE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus,
JSge^us, a king of Attica, giving name to the
^gean sea by drowning himself in it.
^gi'na, a particular favorite of Jupiter.
JE'gia, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew.
JS'gle,. one ofthe three Ilesperides,
/E^gon^ a wrestler famous for strength.
ASgypftuay son of Neptune and Lybia.
/Et'to^ one of the three Harpies.
JEnefaa, son of Anchises and Venus.
/Eoflua, the god of the winds.
jEo'ics, one of the four horses of th» sun,
jEscula'nus, a Roman god of riches.
^scida'pius, the god of physic.
jEthal'ides, a son of mercury.
JS'thon, one of the four horses of the sim.
JEt'noRus, a title of Vulcan.
JStoUos, a son of Endymion aud Diana.
Agamemffion, a brother of Menelaus, chosen
captain-general of the Greeks at the siege
of Troy.
Aganip'pe^ daughter of the river Permessus,
which flows from mount Helicon.
Age'nor, the first king of Argos.
Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry.
Agelas'tua and AgesiHaus^ names of Pluto.
AglaHa, one of the three Graces.
Jjjax, one of the most distinguished princes and
heroes at the siege of Troy.
Albu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli.
Alci'des, a title of Hercules.
Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra.
AlcVonexis^ a giant slain by Hercules.
Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune.
Alcme'na, the wife of Amphitryon.
Alec'tOj one of the three Furies.
AlecUryon, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mars.
Al'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter.
Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres.
Alcb'usj a giant who warred with Jupiter.
Amaithcb'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter.
Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres.
Ambro'sia, the food of the gods.
Am'mon, a title of Jupiter.
Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypernmestra,
a very famous augur.
Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penelope.
AmphVon^ a famous musician.
Amphitri'te^ the wife of Neptune.
Amyntor, a king of Epirus.
Ana'tisy the goddess of prostitution.
Anccb'us, a king of Arcadia.
Andro'getiSj the son of Minos.
Androni'ache^ the wife of Hector.
Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cas-
siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty
with the Nereides, was by them bound to a
rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea
monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and
married her.
Angefrona, the goddess of silence.
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
648
An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido.
Antcb'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he
was squeezed to death hy Hercules.
An'teros^ one of the names of Cupid.
Antever'ta, a goddess of women in labor.
An'thia, and Argi'va, titles of Juno.
An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head.
Aon'ides, a name of the Muses.
Apatu'ria, and AphrodiHis, titles of Venus.
AJpis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also,
Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines;
after his death they worshipped him in the
form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry.
AracWne^ a Lvdian princess, turned by Minerva
into a spider, for presuming to vie with her
at spinning.
Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus.
Argenti'nus, and ^scula'nus, gods of wealth.
Ar'go, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com-
panions to Colchis, and reported to have been
the first man-of war.
Ar'gonauts, the companions of Jason.
Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to liave had a hun-
dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the
ship Argo.
Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love,
gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him
out of the Cretan labyrinth : being after-
wards deserted by him, she was married to
Bacchus, and made his priestess.
Arhnas'pi, a warlike people of Scythia.
Ari'oji, a lyric poet ofMethymna.
Aristcb'us, son of Apollo and Cyrene.
Aristome'nes, a cruel Titan.
Aristoph'anes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a
town of Rhodes.
Arte'mis, the Delphic sybil ; also Diana.
Ascle'pia, festivals of iEsculapius,
Asco'lia, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica.
Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus.
Astrapcb'us, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter.
Astrcb'a, the goddess of justice.
Astrol'ogus, a title of Hercules.
Asty'a7iax, the only son of Hector.
Astypalcb'a, daughter of Phoenix.
A'te, tho goddess of revenge.
Aflan'tes, a savage people of Ethiopia.
At'las, a king of Mauritania.
At'ropos, one of the three Fates.
Aver'nus, a lake on the borders of hell.
AvRrrunc'us. a god of the Romans.
Auge'as^ a king of Elis, whose stable of 3000
oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her-
cules cleansed it in one day.
A'vistuper, a title of Priapus.
Au'rea, a name of Fortuna.
Auro'ra, the goddess of morning.
Auto'leon, a general of the Crotonians.
Autum'nus, the god of fruits.
B
Bac'chus, the god of wine.
Bap'ta, the goddess of shame,
BarbaUa, a title of Venus and Fortuna.
Bas'sareus, a title of Bacchus,
Bat'tus. a herdsman, turned by Mercury mto a
loadstone.
Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband
Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury,
travelling over Phrygia, when all others re-
fused,
28
BeUero'phon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyra,
who underwent numberless hardships for
refusing an intimacy with Sthenoboea, the
wife of Proetus, king of Argos.
Bello'na, the goddess of war.
Berecyn'thia Ma'ter, a title of Cybele.
Bereni'ce^ a Grecian lady, who was the only
person of her sex permitted to see the Olym-
pic games.
Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter.
BibHia, the wife of Duillius, who first instituted
a triumph for naval victory.
Bifceps, and Bi[frons, names of Janus.
BisulUor, a name of Mars.
BiUhon, a remarkably strong Grecian.
Boli'na, a nymph rendered immortal for her
modesty and resistance of Apollo,
Bo'na Be'a, a title of Cybele, and Fortuna.
Bo'nus Dcb'mon, a title of Priapus,
Bo'reas, son of JEstraeus and Heribeia, generally
put for the north wind,
Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna,
Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and
Terra : the poets feign him to have had a
hundred arms and fifty heads.
Brihno, and Bu'bastis, names of Hecate.
Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter,
given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr-
nessus, a ciiy of Troas, by the Greeks.
Bion'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder.
Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself
into mount JEtna, on account of his de-
formity.
Bruma'lia, feasts of Bacchus.
Bubo'na, the goddess of oxen.
Busi'riSy a son of Neptune, and a most cruel
tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules.
Bt/btlis, the daughter of Miletus.
Cabar'ni, priests of Ceres.
Cabi'ri^ priests of Cybele.
Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitae.
Ca'cus, a son of Vulcan,
Cad'rnus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who,
searching in vain for his sister, built the city
of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the
Greek alphabet.
Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand.
Cte'ca, and Conserva'trix, titles of Fortuna.
Ccbc'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan.
Ccb'neas, a title of Jupiter,
Cal'chas, a famous Greek soothsayer.
Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon.
Calli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry.
CcUyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who
reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she
entertained and became enamored of Ulys-
ses, on his return from Troy.
Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia.
Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the
Medes and Persians.
Camcb'na, and Carna, goddess of infants.
Ca'nes, a title of the Furies.
Cano'pus, an Egyptian god.
Car'dlca, a household goddess.
Carmen'ta, a name of Themis.
Car'na, a Roman goddess.
Carya'tis, a title of Diana.
Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to
starve their parents to death when 70 years
old, and to train up dogs for war.
650
THE world's progress.
Caasan^dra. a daughter of Priam and Hecuba.
endowed with the gift of prophecy l)y Apollo.
Castal'idea, the Muses, from the fountain Cas-
talius, at the foot of Parnassus.
CasHor, son of Jupiter and Leda, between whom
and his brother Pollux immortality was al-
ternately shared,
Ca'tius, a tutelar god to grown persons.
Ce' crops, the first king of Athens,
L^elcb'rto, one of the three Harpies,
( 'en'taurs, children of Ixion, half men, half
liurses, inhabiting Thessaly,
( 'nJiaHus, the son ol Mercury and Hersa.
( I'pheus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia.
; c/auhiius, a title of Jupiter.
'.c: hei'iiS, a do^ with three heads and necks,
wlio guarded the gates of hell,
CeitaHia, festivals in honor of Ceres.
Cf.'res, the goddess of agriculture.
Cffrus, or iSc'rus, the god of opportunity.
(J.'iuJcea, festivals in honor of Vulcan.
Char'ites, a name of the Graces.
Vha'ron, the ferryman of hell.
Chi'/nera, a strange monster of Lycia, which
was killed by JBellerophon.
C'lifron, the preceptor of Achilles,
Chro'mis, a cruel son of Hercules
ChrysaoMus, a surname of Jupiter.
Chry'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos,
Cir'ce, a famous enchantress.
Cit'rha, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence
the winds issued which caused a divine rage,
and produced oracular responses,
Cithoi'rides, a title of the Muses,
Clau'sina, a name of Venus,
Clautsius, or Clu'sitis, a name of Janus,
Cieo'medes, a famous wrestler,
CU'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa-
troness oi heroic poets.
Clu'tho, one of the three Fates.
ClytemnesHra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda,
killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her
adultery with .^gisthus.
Cocy'tusy a river of hell, flowing from Styx.
CoUifna, the goddess of hills.
Compita'lia, games of the household gods.
Co'mtcSy the god of festivals and merriment.
Conco7'dta, tne goddess of peace.
Conserva'tor, and Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter.
Con' BUS y a title of Neptune.
VortVna, the covering of Apollo's tripos.
Coryban'tes, and Cufe'tes, "riests o^ C^bele.
Cre'on, a king of Thebes.
Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo.
Crinis'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change
'himself into any shape.
Cra'stcs, a rich king of Lydia,
Cro'nia, festivals in honor of Saturn,
Ctes'ibus, a famous Athenian parasite.
Cuhiia^ the goddess of new-born infants,
Cu'pidj son of Mars and Venus, the god of love,
smiles, &c.
Cy'cIopSy Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye
in the middle of their forehead.
Cijh'ele^ the wife of Saturn.
L'yc'nus, a king of Liguria ; also a son of Nep-
tune, who was invulnerable.
Cylle'niua, and Camil'liis, names of Mercury.
Cynoceph'ahy a people of India, said to have
heads resembling those of dogs.
Cyn'thia, and Cyn'thius, Diana, and Apollo.
Cypariaacb'a, a title of Minerva.
Oyj)'ria^ Cythere a, titles of Venus.
DcbdaHion, the son of Lucifer.
Dad'alus, an artificer of Athens, who formed th«
Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger,
axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts and
sails lor ships.
Da'mon, the sincere friend of Pythias.
Dcb'mun^ Buhius. Dithyram'biis, and Dionya'-
iua, lilies of Bacchus.
Dahiaey ilie daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos,
seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden
shower.
Dana'ides, or Br', ides, the fifty daughters )1
Danaus, king of Argos, all ol whom, except
Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, the sons
of their uncle iEgyptus, on the marriage
night : they were therefore condemned to
draw water out of a deep well with sieves,
so that their labor was without end or suc-
cess.
Dapli'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo.
Darda'nus, the founder of Troy.
Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an
account of the Trojan war,
De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus.
Dec'ima, a title of Lachesis.
Deiun'ira, the wife of Hercules.
Deida'mia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king oi
Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus.
while he lay concealed in woman's apparel
in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to
the Trojan war.
Deiape'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno.
Deiph'obe, the Cumean sybil.
Deiph'ohus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
De'lia, Del'ius, Diana and Apollo.
De'las, the island where Apollo was bom.
Del'phi, a city of Phocis, famous for a temple
and an oracle of Apollo.
Del'phicus, Didymch'us, titles of Apollo.
Dem'ades, an Athenian orator.
Der'bices, a people near the Caspian Sea, whc
punished all crimes with death.
Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes-
saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre-
served from the general deluge, and re-peo-
pled the world.
Dever'ra, the goddess of breeding women.
Diag'oras, a Rhodian, who died tor joy, because
his three sons had on the same day gained
prizes at the Olympic games.
Dia'na, the goddess of hunting, &c.
Di'do, daughter of Belus, the founder and queer
of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have
burnt herself through despair, because ^ne-
as left her.
Di'es, and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter.
Din'dyme, Dindyme'ne, titles ot Cybele.
Diom'edes, a king of ^Etolia, who gained great
reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by
Ulysses, carried ofl* the Palladium ; also, a
tyrant of Thrace.
Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses.
DionysHa, feasts in honor of Bacchus.
Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux.
Di'rcB, a title of the Furies.
Dis, a title of Pluto.
Discor'dia, the goddess of contention.
Domiduica, a title of Juno.
Domidu'cus, and DomiHius, nuptial gods.
Dom'ina, a title of Proserpine.
Dry'ades, nymphs of the woods and forests.
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
651
B
Echi^on, a companion of Cadmus.
Ec'ho, daughter of Aer and Teilus, who pined
away for love of Narcissus.
EdorJides^ priestesses of Bacchus.
Edu'ca, a gcddess of new born infants.
Ege'ria, a title af Juno; also a goddess,
Elec'tra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly-
temnestra, who instigated Orestes to revenge
their father's death on their mother and her
adulterer iEgisthus.
Ll'leus, and Eleuthe'rise, titles of Bacchus.
hyeusin'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser-
pine.
/■J'oh'.des, nymphs of Bacchus,
t'uin])u'sai^ a name of the Gorgons.
Endyni'ion^ a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso-
lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a
sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited him by night
in a cave of mount Latmus.
E7iia'lius, a title of Mars.
En'yo, the same as Bellona.
Epe'us^ the artist of the Trojan horse,
Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who
besieged Thebes, a second time.
Epilcb'nea^ sacrifices to Bacchus.
Epistro'phia, and Ery'cina^ titles of Venus.
Epizeph'rii, a people of Locris, who punished
those with aeatn that drank more wine than
physicians prescribed.
Era' to, the muse of love-poetry.
Er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos ami Nox;
a river of hell.
Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated
Eriotho'mus, a king of Athens, who, being lame
and very deformed in his feet, invented
coaches to conceal his lameness.
Erinhiys, a common name of the furies.
E'?-os, one of the names of Cupid.
Eros' tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his
name, set fire to the celebrated temple of
Diana at Ephesus.
Ete'odes, and Poly'nices, sons of CEdipus, who
violently haled, and at last killed each other.
Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who
threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus-
band Cataneus, from affection.
Euchates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du-
plicity, and dissimulation.
Eumen'ides, a nan;e a 'the Furies.
Euphros'yne, one of the three Graces.
Euro'j)a, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said,
was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white
bull, into Crete.
Eury'ale, one of the three' Gorgons.
Euryd'ice, the wife of Orpheus.
Eitrym'one, an infernal deity.
Euter'pe, the muse presiding over music.
yhnus, a very lamous wrestler.
Eicthyh
F
f'^ah'uln, the goddess of lies.
I'^ahuWnus, a ?od of infants.
Pa' ma, the goddess of report, &c.
Ihs'cinum, a title of Priapus.
Eaies, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus.
Cloihos, Lachesis, and Atropos, intrusted
with the lives of mortals, &c.
Eau'na, and Fat'ua, names of Cybele,
Pau'nus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and fa-
ther of the Fauns, rural gods.
Feb'rua, Flor'ida, Fluo'nia, titles of Junow
Feb'rua, a goddess of purification.
Feb'ruus, a title of Pluto.
Feli'citas, the goddess of happiness.
Fer'culus, a household god.
Fere'trms, and Fulmina'ior, titles of Jupiter.
Fero'nia, a goddess of woods.
Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons.
Fid'ius, the god of treaties.
FlamHnes, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c.
Flo'ra, the goddess of flowers.
Fluvia'les, or Potainides, nymphs of rivers.
For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers.
Fortu'na, or For'tune, the goddess of happiness,
&c., said to be blind.
Fu'rieSj or Eumen'ides, the three daughters of
Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, Megaera,
and Tisiphone, with hair composed of snakes,
and armed with whips, chains, &c.
G
Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion-
ately beloved by^ Polyphemus.
Gal'ii, castrated priests of Cybele.
Gal'lus, or Alec'h'ion^ a favorite of Mars, and
changed by him into a cock.
Game'lia, a title of Juno.
Gan'ges, a famous river of India.
Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter.
Gelasi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles.
Gelo'ni, a people of Scyihia, who used to paint
themselves in order to appear more terrible
to their enemies.
Ge'nii, guardian angels.
Ge'nius, a name of Priapus.
Ger'yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with
human flesh, and was therefore killed by
Hercules.
Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva.
Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating
a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus,
who exchanged his arms of gold for the bra*
zen ones of Diomede.
Gnos'sis, a name of Ariadne.
Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of
Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords
on which the empire of Asia depended, in so
very intricate a manner, that Alexander the
Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces.
Gor'irons, the three daughters of Pborcys and
Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who
could change into stone those whom they
looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin-
cipal of them.
Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas.
Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, the
daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; atten-
dants on Venus and the Muses.
Gradt'vtcs, a title of Mars.
Gy'ges, a Lydian. to whom Candaulea, king of
Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so
incensed her that she slew Candaulea, and
married Gyges; also a shepherd, who bjr
means of a ring could render himself invi-
sible.
H
Ba'des, a title of Plato.
Ilamaxo'bii, a people of Scythia, who lived in
carts, and removed from place to place aa
necessity required.
652
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Harmo^nia, a famous artist of Troy.
HarpaVyca^ a very beautiful maid of Argos.
Harpies^ three monsters, Aeilo, Celoeno, and
Ocypete, with the faces of virgins, bodies- of
vultures, and hands armed with monstrous
claws.
Harpoc'rates, the Egyptian god of silence.
He'be, the goddess of youth.
He'brus, a river in Thrace.
He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus.
Hec'ate^ Diana's name in hell.
HecHor^ a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the
most valiant of all the Trojans,
Hechiba, the wife of Priam.
Hege'sius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de-
scribed the miseries of life with such a
floomy eloquence, that many of his auditors
illed themselves through despair.
HeVena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti
ful woman in the world, who, running away
with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war.
Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
Hel'icon, a famous mountain of Jioiotia, dedi
cated to Apollo and the Muses,
Hera'ia, sacrifices to Juno.
Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re-
markable for his numerous exploits and
dangerous enterprises.
Heribe'ia, the wife of Astreus.
Her'nicb, statutes of Mercury.
Ilerhnes, a name of Mercury.
Herfni'one, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar-
ried to Cadmus; also a daughter of Mene-
laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus,
He'ro, a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace,
priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos,
loved her so tenderly that he swam over the
Hellespont every night to see her ; but being
at length unfortunately drowned, she threw
herself into the sea, through despair,
Herod'otus^ a very famous historian of Halicar-
nassus.
Heroph'ila, the Erythraean sybil.
Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus.
Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star.
Hes'perides, the daughters of Hesperus ; ,^gle,
Arethusa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar-
den bearing golden apples, watched by a
dragon^ which Hercules slew, and bore away
the fruit,
He'siiSj a name of Mars among the Gauls.
Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis.
Hippocam'pi, Neptune's horses.
Hijppocrene, a fountain at the botton- )f mount
Helicon, dedicated to Apollo.
HippoVytuSy the son of Theseus and Amione or
Hyppohte, who refused intimacies with his
stepmother Phaedro. At the request of
Diana, iEsculapius restored him to life,
after he had been thrown from his chariot,
and dragged through the woods till he was
lorn in pieces.
Hippo'na^ the goddess of horses and stables.
Hiato'ria^ the goddess of history.
Horten'sis, a name of Venus.
Ho'rua, a title of the sun.
Hostili'na, a goddess of com.
Uy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and
.SIthra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi-
thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They
were changed by Jupiter into seven stai-s.
ily^bloy a mountain in Sicily, universally famous
for its th^me and bees.
Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or aa
some say nine, others fifty, killed by Hercu-
les in the lake Lerna.
Hyge'ia, the goddess of health.
Hyl'lus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire.
liy'men, the god of marriage.
Hype'rion, a son of CceIus and Terra.
Uypsip'yle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban-
ished for preserving her father when all the
other men of the island were murdered hv
their kindred.
lac'chus, a name of Bacchus.
Jan'/he, the beautiful wife of Iphis,
lape'tus, a son of Coelem and Tefra,
lar'fjas, a cruel king of Mauritania.
Ica'rms, the son of Oebalus, who, \aving re-
ceived from Hacchus a bottle of wine, went
into Attica, to show men the use of it; but,
making some shepherds drunk, they thought'
he had given them poison, and therefore
threw him into a well.
Ica'rus, the son of Dsedalus, who, flying with his
father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring
too high, melted the wax of his wings, and
fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian
sea.
I'da, a mountain near Troy.
Id(h'a Mater, a name of Cybele.
Idcb'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele.
Ida'lia, a name of Venus.
Id'mon, a famous soothsayer.
Ido'thea, Jupiter's nurse.
IWone, the eldest daughter of Priam.
llis'sus, a river in Attica.
I'lus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom
Troy was called Ilium.
Impera'tor, a name of Jupiter.
In'achis and I'ses, names of lo.
I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and
wife of Athamas.
Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women.
Inlerdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of Juno.
In'uus, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan.
I'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi-
ter Into a white heifer ; but afterwards re-
suming her former shape, was worshipped
as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the
name of Isis,
Tph'iclus, the twin brother of Hercules.
Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and CIv-
temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready
to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana,
was, by that goddess, transformed into a
white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her
priestess.
Pphis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself
for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas.
Iph'itus, son of Praxonides, who instituted
Olympic games to Hercules.
Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno's
favorite companion, and her messenger on
affairs of discord, &c.
Ptys, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered
and served up by his mother at a banquet
before Tereus, in revenge^or hi-j having vio-
lated her sister Philomela.
IxVon, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened in
hell to a wheel perpetually turning round,
for boasting that ne had lain with Juno,
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
653
Jan'ilor, and Juno'nius^ titles of Janus.
Jafnus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and
Creusa.
Ja'son^ a Thessalian prince, son of jEson, who
by Medea's help brought away the golden
fleece from Colchis.
To'casta, the daughter of Creon, who unwittingly
married her own son, CEdipus.
Juhw, the sister and wife of Jupiter.
Jii'no, Infer*na, a name of Proserpine.
Jiino'ness, guardian angels of women.
Ju'pifei', a son of Saturn and Ops— the supreme
deity of the heathen.
Ju'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune.
Jn'piter TerHius^ Injer^nus^ or Siy'gius, seve-
ral appellations given to Pluto,
JuvenHa^ a goddess of youth.
Lu^chesis, one of tlie three Fates.
Lncinh'a, and Lucil'ia, titles of Juno.
Lactu'ra, or LactucVna^ a gotldess of corn.
L(tsfrig'o7ies^ cannibals of Italy, who roasted
and ate the companions of Ulysses.
Lafius, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by
his own son, Q'^dipus.
Ln'micb, a name of the Gorgons.
Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of
Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by
serpents for opposing the reception of the
wooden horse into Troy.
La'pis, or Lapid'eus^ titles of Jupiter.
La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped
as household gods.
Lutera'nus, a household god,
Laver'na, a goddess of thieves.
Lcan'der, see Hero.
Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn-
darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a
swan.
Lnmoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, &c.
Le'nce, priestesses of Bacchus.
Lerhta, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra,
killed there by Hercules.
Le'the, a river of hell, whose waters caused a
total forgetfulness of things past.
Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants.
LihitVna^ the goddess of funerals.
LVmiS, son of Apollo and Terpsichore.
Luben'tia, the goddess of pleasure.
Lu'ci/er, son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the
morning star.
Luhia, Diana's name in heaven,
LuperccUia, feasts in honor of Pan.
LypeT'ci, priests of Pan.
Lycahn, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter
into a wolf.
MaHa^ loved by Jupiter, and by him turned into
a star to avoid Juno's rage.
ManagencHa^ a goddess of women in labor.
Alantu'ra, a goddess of com.
Mantur'na, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses.
Mari'na, Mel'anis, Mer'etrix\ MigonVtis, and
Mur'cia, titles of Venus.
Mars, the god of war.
Mauso'lus, a king of Caria, who had a moal
magnificent tomb erected to him by his wif«
Artemisia.
Mede'a, daughter of JEtes, king of Colchis, a
* famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob-
tain the golden fleece.
Meditri'na, a goddess of grown peweons.
Medu'sa, the chief of the three Gorgons.
Mtgcb'ra, one of the three Furies.
Megalen'sia, festivals in honor of Cybele.
Megah-a^ the wife of Hercules.
MeJani'/a, a name of Venus.
Me'licb, nymphs of the fields.
Me'lius, a name of Hercules.
Melohia, the goddess of honey.
Melpo7n'e7ie, the njuse of tragedy.
Me7n'no7i, a king of Abydos.
Menala'usy a famous Centaur.
MeneJa'us^ the husband of Helena.
MenUha^ a mistress of Pluto.
Mm'tor, the governor of Telemachus.
Mer'cury, the messenger of the gods, inventor of
letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise,
and robbers.
Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades.
Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac-
chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power
given him of turning whatever he touched
into gold.
Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength.
3'IimalHones, attendants on Bacchus.
Mineriva^ the goddess of wisdom.
Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi'
nary justice, a judge of hell.
Mhi'otaiir, a monster, half man, half beast.
Min'ycb^ a name of the Argonauts.
Mnemos'yne, the goddess of memory.
Muhmis, the god of raillery, wit, &c.
Mone'ta, a title of Juno.
Mor'pheus, the god of sleep, dreams, &c.
Mors^ the goddess of death.
MuVciber^^ title of Vulcan.
Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo-
syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of
all the sciences, presidents of musicians and
poets, and governesses of the feasts of the
gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe. Mel-
pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia,
and Urania.
Mu'ia, the goddess of silence.
N
Nania, the goddess of funeral songs.
Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c.
Narcis'sus, a very beautiful youth, who, falling
in love with nis own shadow m the water,
pined away into a daflfbdil.
Na'tio, and Nundi'na, goddess of infants,
Namoi'a, a country of Elis, famed for a terrible
lion killed there by Hercules.
Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge,
Nep'tune, the god of the sea.
N&reides^ sea hymphs,
Ne'rio, the wife of Mars.
Niceph'oms, a title of Jupiter.
Ni'nus, the first king of the Assyrians.
Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am-
phion, who, preferring herself to Latonaj
had her 14 children killed by Diana ana
Apollo, and wept herself into a statue.
No'mtus, a name of Apollo.
654
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS..
jYoar, the most ancient ot the deities ; she was
even reckoned older than Chaos.
Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna.
OccaUor, the god of harrowing.
Oce'anua, an ancient sea god.
Ocyp'ete, one of the three Harpies.
(Ed'ipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of
Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx,
unwittingly killed his father, married his
mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out
his' eyes.
Om'phale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her-
cules was so enamored, that she made him
submit to spinning and other unbecoming
offices.
Oper'tus, a name of Pluto.
Opi'gena, a name of .Juno.
Ops, a name of Cybele.
Orbo'na, a goddess of grown persons.
Ores' tes, the son of Agamemnon.
Orison, a great and mighty hunter,
Or'pheus, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had
great skill in music, and was torn in pieces
by the Msenades, for disliking the company
of women after the death of his wife Eury-
dice.
Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons.
Osih'is, see Apis.
Pac'lolus, a river of Lydia, with golden sands
and medical waters.
Pcb'an, and PhoR'bus, names of Apollo.
PaHes, the goddess of shepherds.
Palil'ta, feasts in honor of Pales.
Pcdlu'dium, a statue of Minerva, which the
Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that
-their cit^ could not be taken whilst that re-
mained in it.
Pal'lasy and Py'lotis, names of Minerva.
Pan, the god of shepherds.
Pando'ra, the first woman made by Vulcan, and
endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi-
ter gave her a box containing all manner of
evils, war, famine, &c., with hope at the
bottom.
Pan'ope, one of the Nereids.
Pa'phia, a title of Venus.
Par'ciB, a name of the Fates.
ParHs, or Alexander, son of Priam and He-
cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away
with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan
war.
Parnas'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for
a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite
residence of the Muses.
ParHunda, a nuptial goddess.
Pastoph'ori, priests ol Isis.
Patfaretis, a title of Apollo.
PateWna, a goddess of corn.
Patula'chcs, a name of Janus.
PattUe'ius, a name of Jupiter.
PavenUia, and Poti'na, goddesses of infants.
Peg'asics, a winged horse belonging to Apollo
and the Muses.
Pdynia, a goddess of grown persons.
^ena'teSi small statues or household gods.
Penel'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for her
chastity and fidelity during the long absence
of Ulysses.
Per'seus, son of Jupiter and Danae, who per-
forir>ed many extraordinary exploits by
means of Medusa's head.
Ph(bcasia'nU ancient gods of Greece,
Pha'eton, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, who
asked the guidance of his father's chariot
for one day, as a proof of his divine descent ;
but unable to manage the horses, set the
world on fire, and was therefore struck by
Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po.
PhaVlica, feasts of Bacchus.
Philam'mon, a skilful musician.
PailonieHa, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens,
who was ravished by her brother-in-law,
• Tereus, and was changed into a nightin-
gale.
Phinfeas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla-
gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas,
but was recompensed with the knowledge
of futurity ; also a king of Thrace, turned
into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me-
dusa's head.
Phleg'ethon, a boiling river of hell.
Phle'gon, one of the four horses of Sol.
Phleg'ycb, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by
Neptune, on account of their piracies and
other crimes.
Phcb'bas, the priestess of Apollo,
Phce'bus. a title of Apollo.
Ph(B'nix\ son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac-
cused of having attempted the honor of one
of his father's concubmes, was condemned
to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by
Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege
of Troy,
Picum'nus, a rural god.
Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womei*.
Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly.
Pi'tho, a goddess of eloquence.
Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and
Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope,
Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they were
changed into stars.
Plu'to, the god of hell,
Plu'tus, the god of riches,
Pol'lux. See Castor.
Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler.
Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician.
Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric.
Polyphe'nms, a monstrous giant, son of Nep-
tune, with but one eye in the middle of his
forehead.
Pomo'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn.
Pose'idon, a name of Neptune.
PrcBnesWna, a name of Fortuna.
PrcbsUes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva.
Praxit'eles, a famous statuary.
Pri'am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris,
Hector, <fec. ; he was the last king of Troy.
Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, .uvl
sister of Philomela; she was turned into a
swallow.
Prome'theus, son of lapetus, who animated a
man that he had formed of clay, with fire,
which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole
from heaven, and was therefore chained by
Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture
continually preying upon his liver.
PropyHoba, a name of Hecate.
Pros'crphiCj the wife of Pluto.
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
655
ProUeus^ a sea god, who could transform himself
into any shape.
Pst/'che, a goddess of pleasure.
Pyl'adcs, the constant friend of Orestes.
Pi/r'amus, and Thisfbe, two lovers of Babylon,
who killed themselves with the same sword,
and occasioned the turning the berries of the
mulberry-tree, under which they died, from
white to red.
Prycb'tis, one of the four horses of the sun.
Pyrfrhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his
cruelty at the siege of Troy,
PyHhon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud
oi the delug:e, whicn Apollo killed, and in
memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games,
Pythonis'sa, the priestess of Apollo.
Uuad'rifrons^ a title of Janus?.
Qui'es, a goddess of grown persons.
Quiet aHis, and QuieHus^ names of Pluto.
Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas.
R
lieci'ns, a li'Je of Bacchus.
Jie'dux^ and Re'gia^ titles of Fortune.
Regi'na^ a title of .luno.
Rhadamaii'lkus, one of the three inlenial
judges.
Rhe'a, a title of Cybele.
Rhe'a-syl'via, the" mother of Ilomulus.
Robi'gus^ a god oi corn.
Rum'ulus, the first king of Rome.
Rumi'na, a goddess of new-born infants.
Runci'na, the goddess of weeding.
Rusi'na, a rural deity.
Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine.
(S'a'/n, the 12 frantic priests of Mars.
lyalmone'us, a king of Elis, struck by a thunder-
bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder.
Sa'lus, the goddess of health
i^^anc'us, a god oi the Sabines
SatoT, and SorriUor, rural gods,
Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn.
Satur'nus, or SaVurriy the son of Coelus and
Terra.
Sat'yrs^ the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon-
sters, half men, half goats.
Scy'ron^ a famous robber of Attica.
S^ia^ and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn.
Sel'U, priests of Jupiter.
Sen'ta^ a goddess of married women.
Sera'pis. See Afis.
Sile'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac-
chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass,
and was drunk every day.
Sifmis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules.
Sis'yjjhus, the son of iEoIus, killed by Theseus,
and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone
up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and
numerous robberies.
Sol, a name of Apollo.
Som'nus, the god of sleep.
Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna,
who destroyed hersell because (Edipus
solved the enigma she proposed.
Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons,
JSten'tor, a Grecian, whost voice is reported to
have been as strong and as loud as me voices
of 50 men together.
Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons.
Styx, a river of hell.
Sua'da, a nuptial goddess.
Summa'nus, a name of Pluto,
Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests.
Sy'rens, sea monstera
T
Ta'cita, a goddess of silence,
TantaHits, a king of Paphlagonia, who, serv-
ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelops.
to try the divinity of the gods, was plunsed
to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to
everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish-
ment for his barbaritv and Impiety.
Tarta'rus, the place of the wicked in hell.
Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupitei
carried away Europa.
Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele.
Telana'chus, the only son of Ulysses.
Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the
resort of the gods.
Ter'minus, the god of boundaries.
Terpsicho're, the muse of music, «fec.
Terh'or, the god of dread and fear.
IVia'lia, the muse of comedy.
Thehnis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the
goddess of laws, oracles, &c.
Tkesfpis, the first tragic poet.
The'tis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god-
dess of the sea.
Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus.
Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo.
7^isiph'one, one of the three Furies,
Ti'lan, son of Ccelum and Terra, and the elder
brother of Saturnus, or Saturn.
Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter.
Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter.
Tri'tonia, a name of Minerva.
TroHlus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out
a siege often years against the Greeks, but
they at last captured and destroyed it.
TutcWna, a goddess of corn.
Ty'ro, one of the Nereids.
U
Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king
of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence,
was eminently serviceable to the Greeks Id
the Trojan war.
UnxHa, a title of Juno,
Ura'nia, the muse oi astronomy.
Vacu^na, the goddess of idle persons.
Vagita'nus, a god of little infants.
Vcdlonia, a goddess of valleys.
VeniHia, a wife of Neptune.
Ve*nu8, the goddess ol love, and beauty.
VergilHcR, a name of the Pleiades.
Verticor*dia, a name of Venus.
Vertum'nus, the god of spring.
656
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Fea'/o, the goddess of fire.
ViaHesy deities of the highways.
VtbilHa^ the goddess of wanderers.
Virffmen'sis, a nuptial goddess.
Vir'ffo, a name of Astrea and Fortune.
Virtlis, and Visca'ta, titles of Fortune.
Viri'placa^ an inferior nuptial goddess, who re-
conciled husbands to their wives ; a temple,
at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the
married couple repaired after a quarrel, and
returned together friendly.
Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth.
Volu'sia, a goddess of corn.
Vtd'can^ the god of subterraneous fire.
XanUktcs, one of the horses of Achilles, born of
the harpy Celceno, a river near Troy, called
also Scamander.
Z
Za'gi-eus, a title of Bacchus.
Zeph'yrusy son of ^olus and Aurora, wiio pas-
sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put
for the west wind.
Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia,
who accompanied the Argonauts, and drove
the Harfiies Irom Thrace.
Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert
in music.
Ze'us, a title of Jupiter.
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period to the present time, is not oi
course intended to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in
iheir several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full lists
are given in their proper place.
This list may be useful in two ways, viz :
First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in this volume ; and
Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and contemporary
public characters during the life of each person in the list.
Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. J. The tables on
page 20 to 24, show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life.
Milton was bom a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia; six
years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended the throne j
the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year before Gustavus
Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. He
was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he was 17 when Charles I. suc-
ceeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was beheaded. Among his contemporaries
were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller,
Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England : Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton, and
Eliot, in America: Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Des Cartes, Moliere, Corneille,
Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London,
14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New- York was ceded to the English.
And thus of any person mentioned in the Index — a great variety of particulars may be fbund
at a glance, on referring to the tables.
*,* No living persons are mentioned, except some of the most noted in Europe.
Abbreviations. — See List in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbarian), includes several different
nations,^ sovie not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ
are indicated by b. c. — all others are A. d. — In some cases the dates are necessarily left blank.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Dan, Aagesend, Svind, historian . , . ,
Jew. Aaron, the fi^'st high-priest ....
Gr. Aaron, of Alcjxandria, physician
Eng. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury and author ,
Arab. Abd 'el Kader, distinguished warrior
Fr. Abelard, Peter, a celebrated scholastic divine .
Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician
Sp. Abenezra, an astron., philos., poet, philologist, &c.
Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary
Eng. Abercromby, Sir Ralph, military commander
Eng. Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer
Fr. Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the classics
Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation
Dan. Absalom (real name Axel), archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor.
Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet
Syr. Abulfeda, the geographer ....
Rom. Accius, or Attius,"a tragic poet (works not extant)
Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic
Ger. Accum., Fred , operative chemist (in Eng.)
Prnss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-li2;hting and lithog. in London
Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war
Gr. Achilles Patius (of Alexandria), Christian bp. and author
Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman ana historian
Eng. Adam, Alexander, schoolmaster and author
28*
BORN.
DIED.
. f. 1188
. B. c. 1570
1453
. f. 622
1562
1623
1806
1079
1142
. 1802
1119
1174
. * 1738
1801
1764
1831
1606
1664
B. c. 1995 B.
c. 1821
1128
1203
561
6d4
1273
1345
B.C. 171
1229
. 1769
1838
n 1764
1834
f. 1184
3d cent
1220
1282
. 1741
1809
658
t\ie world's progress.
Eng.
Amcr.
Amei.
Ainer.
Eng.
Rom.
Ire.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Rom.
Rom.
Gr.
Gr.
Swiss.
Gr.
Gr.
Eng.
Rom.
Ger.
Rom.
Fr.
Eng.
Ene.
f* NAME AND PROFESSION.
Adam, Robert, an architectural author
Adams, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S.
, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic
, John, patriot and statesman— 2d Pres. U. S.
Addison, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature
Adrian, the 15th Emp. (born in Spain)
Adrain, Robert, mathematician (at New- York, &c.)
JElian, the historian and rhetorician
iEneas, son of Priam, king of Troy
JEschmes, of Athens, philos.— disciple of Socrates
orator
.SJschylus, of Athens, the great tragic writer
JEaop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists
iEtius, mil. com. (defeated Atilla) . •
Africanus, Julius, historian
Agamemnon, " the king of kings"
Agathius, historian and poet . . . . f. 565
Agassiz, Louis, naturalist . . . . . ' 1807
Agesilaus JI., king of Sparta ; (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks)
Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kinss
Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible .
Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander
Agricola, John, a divine ;— founder of the Antinomians
Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea
—7-^ , Cornelius, philosopher, &c.
Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer ; editor of poets, &c.
Amsworth, grammarian and lexicographer
Tartar. Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign,
Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet
Akerblad, philologist
Alaric I., kin^ of the Visigoths
Alberoni, Julius (cardinal), statesman
Alberti, an eminent writer, paint, j sculp., &c.
Albertus Magnus, philosophic writer; tutor of Aquinas
Alboin, tha Lombard conqueror
Albuquerque (the great), military commpiider
AlcaBUS, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . . , f b.
Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian aud author .
Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman .
Alcuinus (founder of schools at Paris, &c.)
Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet
Alembert, John le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher
Alexander, the Great, founder of tiie Macedonian empire
-, Severus, emperor ....
J Nevskoi, a saint and hero ;— def. of the Tartars, &c.
, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon)
Swe,
Bar.
Span.
Ital.
Ger.
• Bar.
Port.
Gr.
Ital.
Gr.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Bar.
Rom.
Rue
Rus.
Gr.
Ital.
Eng.
Ital.
Bar
Bar.
Scot.
Scot.
Amer,
Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East
Alfieri, Victor, an eminent tragic poet
Alfred, justly called the Great, king
Algarotti, a general sch/^lar and critic
All Bey, gov. of Egypt, -revolted against the Turks
— Tepelini, pacha of Jannina
Alison, Archibald Rev., 'Essays on Taste'
Alison, Archibald, ' History of Europe,' ' Essays'
Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution
Amer. AUston, Washington, painter and poet
Sar, Almamon, Caliph, patron of learning
Sar. Almansor, Caliph, patron of learning
Alphonso X., kmg of Castile, Leon — and author
1-5 Henriquez, founder of the Portuguese monarchy
Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous mil. com.
Amaziah, king of Judah
Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan— author
Americus Vespucius (of Florence)— explored the S. Amer. coast
Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator
Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c.
Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian
Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher
Ampere, Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philos.
Amyot, James, bp. of Auxerre— translator of Plutarch
Anac.harsis, a Scythian philosopher, and disciple of Solon
Anacreon, a celebrated poet
Span.
Port.
Span.
Jew.
Ital.
Ital.
Amer.
Eng.
Rom.
Gr.
Fr.
Fr.
Bar.
BORN.
1723
1767
1726
1735
1672
76
1775
160
f. B.C. 1183
B. G. 393 s
B. 0. 468
: B. c. 600
DIBD.
1794
1848
1808
1826
1719
138
1843
8. c. ?23
B. o. 400
40
490
40
J 486
1747
1660
1555
1721
1664
1398
1205
1452
,c. 606
1492
c. 450 I
732
1717
. c. 356 I
209
1218
1777
1749
849
1712
1728
1744
1757
4.54
232
904
B. 0. 361
, c. 251
1610
93
1566
94
1533
1822
1743
1605
1770
1819
411
1752
1490
1280
574
1203
1094
1508
340
1451
1750
1717
1775
1513
. c. 592
1550
. c. 404
804
709
1783
1. c. 323
235
1262
1825
1118
1803
900
1764
1773
1822
1839
1789
1843
833
775
1284
1185
1582
.0. 809
387
1512
1808
1797
300
. c. 24
1836
1593
B. c. 474
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
659
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Gr. Anastasms L, emperor of the East ....
Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher . . . . b
Gr. Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great f. b,
Gr. Anaximander of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher
Gr. Anaximenes " " " .
Fr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet andnovelist
Pruss. Ancillon, .1. P. F. , historian and statesman
Dan. Andersen, Hans Chris., poet andnovelist
Eng. Anderson, Sir Edmund, a judge and author
Scotch. , Adam, commercial writer
Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester
Fr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine
Gr. Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, flourished
Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masiniello), a fisherman of Naplei
who rose to great power ....
Gr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian
Eng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer ....
Car. Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general
Fr. Anquetil du Perron, a classic scholar, and author .
Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury— a learned divine
Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander
Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions
, of Padua, a divine , . . .
Antigonns, one of the generals of Alexander the Great
Antiochus V. .....
Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great .
Antisthenes, a pliilos.— founder of the sect of Cynics, before Christ
Antoninus, Pius, emperor .....
, Marcus Aurelius, emperor — sumamed the philosopher
Antony, Mark, mil. commander and statesman
Anveri, a celebrated poet ....
Apion, a grammarian, and bitter enemy of the Jews, flourished
Apollonius, sumamed Rodius^, a poet
, Pergamensi?, a geometrician, flourished
, Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher
Appian, an historian, flourished
Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian
Arago, astron., nat. philos., and statesman
Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder
Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman
Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet ....
Archelaus, Ionic philosopher, flourished
Archius, a poet, flourished ....
Archilochus, a poet, flourished . . . "
Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician
Archytas, a mathematician ....
Aretino,Guido, inventor of the gamut of music
, Leonard, an historian
, Peter, satirist .....
Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer
Argensola, JiUpercio, historian and poet
, Bartholomew, historian
Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet
Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher
-, grammarian and critic
Eng.
Egypt.
Ital.
Mace.
Mace.
Gr.
Rom.
Rom.
Rom.
Pers,
Egypt.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Ital.
Fr.
Eng.
Gr.
Scotch.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Pruss.
Span.
Span.
Ital.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Span.
Eng.
Fr.
Ge/.
Dutch.
Eng.
Amer.
Ital.
Fr.
Aristides, an Athenian statesman
, ^lius, an orator and sophist
, one of the fathers of the church, flourished
Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher— founder of the Cyreniaca f. b.
Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot, flourished
Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet
Aristotle, philosopher— founder of the Peripatetics
Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Ariaj.T sect
, Montanus, Benedict.— orientalist
Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies
Arlincourt, Victor, vicompte de, novelist
Arminius, the deliverer of Germany
, James, a celebrated divine — founder of a sect
Armstrong, John, M. D., poet . • ♦ .
, John, general, statesman, military com., and historian
Amaud, Daniel, troubadour ....
, Francis Baculard d', dramatist and poet
0. BOOb.
0. 340
611 B.
B.
1794
1767
1692
1555
1797
. 63
1623
1^)83
1703
, 247 1
1731
1033
1697
251
1195
OISD.
618
0. 647
c. 604
1837
1605
1765
423
86
121
. c. 86 B
80
, c. 194
. c. 242
143
1224
1705
. 0, 273 B
. 0. 450
. c. 719
i.e. 685
. c. 287 B
. c. 408 B
995
1369
1492
1799
1565
1566
1474
I.e. 280
I. c. 160
s
129.
127
c. 392
c. 662
c. 3^4 I
1527
1732
1789
1560
1709
1758
1718
1646
1148
1778
c. 183
1805
1109
1762
356
1231
c. 301
0. 164
c. 319
161
180
, c. 30
1201
97
1274
1759
c. 216
1735
. 212
. 360
1414
1556
1613
1631
1533
467
185
. 381
336
1598
1792
20
1610
1779
1843
1220
1805
660
THE world's progress.
HATIOW.
Eng.
Gr.
Prus.
Ital.
Eng.
Amer.
Gr.
Eng.
Bar.
Bar.
Bar.
Brit.
Eng.
Eng.
Bar.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Ame. Thomas Augustus, musical composer
Amooiua, a defenofer of Christianity
Arnim, L. A. von, poet and novelist
Arnold, of Brescia, a learned monk — disciple of Abelard
, Thos,, D. D., theologian, historian and philelogist
, Benedict, major general— the traitor to nis country
Arrian, historian — disciple of Epictetus
Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts
Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy .
Artaxerxes I., king of Persia
, founder of the new Persian kingdom
BORN.
1710
f. 303
1781
1795
f. 140
B.C. 250
s
472
1515
B
1800
1778
1763
296
f. 177
f. 190
Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable
Arundel, Thomas H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles
Ascham, Roger, a learned writer
Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general
Amer. Ashmun, John H., jurist— professor of law
Eng. Asser, John, historian
Ger. Ast, Geo. A. F., philologist, ' Lexicon Platonicum '
Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York
Gr. Athanasius, St., one of the fathers of the church
Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher . . . . ,
Gr. Athenais, Emp. of the West, and authoress (called also Eudoxia)
Gr. Atheneeus, a celebrated grammarian— the Greek Varro
Bar. Attains, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus— inv. of parchment
Gr. , Rhodius, mathematician . . . f. b. c. 173
Eng. Atterbury, Francis, bp. of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy . 1662
Rom. Atticus, a knight, and author (works lost) . . .B.C. 109 b.
Bar. Attila, king of the Huns, " the Scourge of God"
Pr. Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer . . . 1784
Eng. Auckland, William, lord, statesman ....
Fr. Audoin, J. F., zoologist ..... 1797
Fr. Augereau, duke of Castiglione, mil. com. . . . 1757
Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church . . 354
, the Apostle of the English— 1st archbishop of Canterbury
Rom. Augustulus, Romulus, the last emperor of the West
Rom. Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavius— 1st emperor . b. c. 63
Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet ....
Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus— republican— military commander . . 1743
Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author .
Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician, and author . , , 980
Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, Compiler of Index to Shakspeare, &c.
DUD.
1778
1831
1155
1842
1801
1823
.c. 425
212
542
1646
1568
.c. 220
1833
909
1841
1848
371
460
B. c. 198
1731
c. 32
453
1814
1841
1816
430
604
476
14
394
1800
1197
1037
IdOi
Eng.
Gr.
Port
Ame*
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Dan.
Ger.
Eng.
Fr.
Scot.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Scot.
Turk.
Ital.
Fr.
Fr.
Swe.
Irish.
Eng.
Pruss.
Eng.
Turk.
Fr.
Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist
Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . f. b. c
Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet
Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian .
Back, Geo., Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author
Bacon, Roger, a monk, celebrated for his scientific knowledge
, Francis, lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and statesman
Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature
Biihr, Jno. C. F,, classical philologist ....
Bailey, Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer
Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer
Baillie, Matthew, physician and anatomist
Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician
Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revolution
Bainbridge, Wm., naval commander
Baird, Sir David, military commander
Bajazet. sultan— conquered by Tamerlane
Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer
Baldwin, who became emperor of the East
Balzac, Ilonore de, novelist
Banier, or Banner, a celebrated military commander
Banim, .Tohn, novelist
Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator— President Royal Society
Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age
Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer
Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair— usurper of Algiers
Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer
1790
. 450
1610
1724
1214
1561
1735
1798
1649
1761
1774
1736
1774
1757
Venice 1782
Princeton
Tours
1799
1596
1800
1743
1721
1743
1674
1663
1806
1292
1626
1804
1742
1706
1823
1844
1793
1833
1629
1413
1206
1850
16'11
184-2
1820
1740
1825
1518
1729
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
661
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . . Va.
Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman, and Jud^e of Sup. Court . Va.
Eng. Barcla;y, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers
Ita). Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &c.
Eng. Baring, Alex, (lord Ashburton), statesman
Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman, and poet
Eng. Barnes, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar
Amer. , Daniel H., a distinguished conchologist
DutcJi, Barneveldt, John, statesman (beheaded)
Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval comu ander
Fr, Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the revolution
Eng. Barrow, Isaac, a divine, and mathematician
Amer. Barry, W. T., statesman and diplomatist . . Va.
Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' «&c., .
Amer, Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist
Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist ....
Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church
Fr. Basnage De Beaval, James, liistorian
Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman .
Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman
Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman — friend of Pope, «fec.
Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician, and miscellaneous writer
Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine, and author
Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander ....
Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman, and lawyer
Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer ....
Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist, and historian
Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher, and critic [Bayle's Dictionary]
Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet ....
Eng. Beattie, James, LL.D., poet ....
Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene Ilortense, ex-queen of Holland
Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene, son of the empress .Tosephine, mil. com. — vice-
roy of Italy, &c, .....
Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist
Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist
Eng, Beaumont, Francis, dramatic writer . . . ,
Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian
Ital. Beccaria, .John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher
Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy, and author
Eng. Becket, Thomas K, celebrated prelate and statesman
Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist
Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk, and historian .
Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander
Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet (bro. of 'Meyerbeer')
Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer
Ger. Bekkerj Emmanuel, philologist . , . ,
Rom. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror
Scot. Bell, John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist
Scot. Bell, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist
Amer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author
Ital. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church
Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet .....
Fr. Belleisle, Count de, military commander
Ital, Bellini, Vincenzo, musical composer
Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic— translator of Herodotus, &c,
l^'y. Belon, William, naturalist and traveller .
Eng. Belsham, William, historical, political, and miscellaneous writer
Ital. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt
Ital. Bembo, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature
Eng. Benbow, John, a gallant admiral
Ital. Benedict, St., one of the originators of monasteries
Ital. : XIII., pope — theological writer
Ital. XIV., pope— theological writer
I''r. Penezet, Anthony, philanthropist and historian (died in America)
Ha:'. Benhadad, king of Syria ....
Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet
Rng. IJenfham, Jeremy, political and philosophical writer
Eng, Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar
Pr, Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet .
f r. Berenger, A. M. M. T., statesman and jurist
Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer
Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal
BORN.
1775
1783
1648
1716
1756
1654
1547
1759
1755
1630
1785
1716
1766
1701
320
1653
1758
1682
16S1
1713
1615
1476
1767
1694
1647
1797
1735
1753
1780
1732
1798
1555
1714
1716
1735
1119
1760
672
1800
1770
1763
1781
1719
1542
1528
1684
1808
1618
1752
1470
1650
480
1649
1675
1713
X
1612
1662
1785
1797
1735
DiBt).
1842
1841
1690
1789
1812
1712
1818
1619
1818
1829
1677
1835
1795
1815
1777
379
1723
1839
1764
1775
1780
1691
1524
1815
1627
1738
1706
1839
1803
1837
1824
1799
1616
1789
1781
1793
1170
1844
735
1435
1833
1827
565
1825
1842
1790
1626
1577
1761
1835
1564
1827
1823
1542
1702
547
1728
1758
1784
3. 895
1691
1832
1742
1784
662
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS
f. B
in 11
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Dan. Behring, a navigator, from whom the strait dividing Asia and America
was named .....
Bel. Beriot, Chas. A. de, violinist and composer
Irish. Berkely, George, bp., a)i eminent prelate and philosopher .
Amer. , William, governor of Virginia
Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer
Fr. Bernadotte, .). B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV.
Fr. Bernard, Simon, engineer and mil. commander
Fr. ,St., preacher of crusades, and author
Eng. , Edward, a divine, astronomer, and author
Dutch. ,JohnFrederick, a bookseller, editor and author
Amer. , Francis, governor of Massachusetts
Fr. Bemardin, De Sainte Pierre, author of ' Studies of Nature,' &c.
Ital. Bemi, poet (poisoned) . .
Swiss. Bernoulli, James, mathematician
Bar. Berosus, the Chaldean historian
Fr. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,'
, vols. 4to. . ....
Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman
Fr. Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander .
Fr. BerthoUet, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist
Fr. Bertrand, Henri G., .^en. in Napoleon's army
Eng. Berwick, duke of, military commander (k, at Phillipsburg)
Swe. Berzelius, John James, chemist
Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander (k. at Lutzen)
Ger. Bessel, Fred. Wm., astronomer
Ital. Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer
Fr. Beudant, Francois S., mineralogist and naturalist
Eng. Beveridge, William, an eminent theologian, and orientalist,
Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer
Fr. Bezout, mathematician ....
Ital. Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author
Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages ....
Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist
Eng. Biddle, John, an eminent Socinian writer
Amer. , Nicholas, financier and literateur
Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the IT. S. navy
Amer. , James, commodore, in U. S. navy
Fr. Bignon, Louis E,, historian
Gr. Bion, pastoral poet .....
Gr. of Borysthenes, philosopher (Cyreniac) .
Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician ....
Eng. Birbeck, Geo., M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions
Fr. . Biron, duke of, military commander (beheaded for conspiracy)
Scotch. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer
Span. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the name
the Cid .....
Eng. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author
Scotch. Blair, Robert, a divine and poet
Scotch. ,John, a chronologist
Scotch. , Dr. Hugh a divine and rlietorician
Scotch. , James, founder of William and Mary's college in Virginia
Eng. Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral ...
Irish. Blessington, Marguerite, Countess, novelist, and literateur
Eng. Bloomfield, Robert, a poet ....
Pruss. Blucher, a celebrated military commander
Swe. Blumenbach, John Fred., naturalist
Brit. Boadicea, the warlike (juecn of the Iceni .
Ital. Boccacio, John, one of the great classic writers of modern Italty
Itai. Boccalina, a satirist .....
Fr. Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine, and orientalist
Fr. Bodin, John, a lawyer and author
Ger. Baehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author
Dutch. Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians .
Rora. Boethius, a statesman and philosopher
Fr. Bohemond, a Norman adventurer
Ger. Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist
Fr. Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet
Fr. Boissard, Jean J., fabulist ....
Fr. Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies
Fr. , D' Andes, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist
Eng. Bolmbroke, Henry St. John, lord, political and deistical writer
of
f. 1730
1802
1684
1803
1764
1779
1091
1638
1737
1654
c. 268
1681
1790
1753
1748
1778
1670
1779
1769
1784
1718
1787
1638
1519
1730
1662
c. 606
1771
1615
1786
1750
1783
1771
1776
1561
1759
1(M0
1723
1699
1718
1660
1599
1766
1742
1752
1313
1556
1509
1530
1575
1668
455
163G
1743
1694
1756
1678
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
663
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION.
Cblom. Bolivar, Simon, the heroic deliverer of his country
Fr. Bonaparte, Napoleon, emp. of France
Fr. , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon
Pr_ J Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain
Fr. , Lucien, prince of Camno
Fr. , Louis, ex-king of Holland
Fr, ^ Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia
Fr. , Louis Napoleon, 1st pres. Republic of France
Eng. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants .
Swiss. Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist
Eng. Bonnycastle, John, mathematician
Eng. , Charles, mathematician
Amer. Boone, Daniel, the first settler of Kentucky
Ger. Bopp. Francis, Sanscrit scholar
Fr. Bonpiand, Anne, traveller and botanist
Ital. Boresli, philosopher and mathematician .
Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian
Ital. Borgia, Caesar, the infamous pope, Alexander VL
Ital. Borromeo, cardinal, theological writer
Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist
Eng. Boscawen, Edward, a brave ard skilful admiral
Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philovsophical writer
Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine ana historian
Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician
Scotch. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author
Eng. " ' . - • ' - -
Gr.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson
Bottiger, arohoeologist and antiquarian
Botzarris, Marco, a gallant leader in the modem revolution
Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist
Boufflers, duke of, military commander
Bourgainville, Louis A., military commander, and author
Bourguer, Peter, mathematician and hydrographer
Bourlainvilliers, Henvy, count de, historian
Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer
Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer
Bourdaloue, Louis, a noted preacher
Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author
Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France
Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet
Bourrienne, biographer^f Napoleon
Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer
Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &c.
Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakspeare, &c.
Bowdoin, James, l.L. D., philosopher and statesman
James (son of the last), ambassador to Spain
Bowring, John, statesman, poet, and linguist
Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris)
Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician
Scotch. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet
Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher
Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician
Bradwardine, Thomas, mathematician and theologian
Brady, Robert, physician and historian
Bradford, William, second governor of Plymouth colony
, William, attorney general of the United States
EnL
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Dan.
Ger.
Ger.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
Swe.
Bar.
Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer
Brandes, Hem^ Win., mathematician and astronomer
, John Christian, actor and dramatist
Brainard, David, missionary to the Indians
J. G. C., a poet
Breitkopf, John G. E., an eminent printer and type-founder
Bremer, Fredrika, novelist
Brennus, the leader of the Gauls,
Scotch. Brewster, Sir David, nntural philo.soplier
Eng. Bridgewater, duke of, introducer of canals in England
Briggs, Henry, mathematician
Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist
Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author
Broglio, due de, statesman
Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer
Brooks, John, LL. 1),, governor of Massachusetts
Brotier, G., a Jesuit— editor of Tacitus
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Iri^h.
Amer
Ft.
BO EM.
OI8D.
1785
1831
1769
1821
1750
1836
. 1768
1844
1775
1840
1778
1846
1784
1808
1569
. 1720
1793
1821
1840
1730
1823
1791
1840
1507
1781
1608
1679
1538
1581
1759
1828
1711
176i
1711
1787
1627
1704
1730
1814
1676
1732
1710
1795
1835
1780
18-2.*]
1740
1821
1644
I71i
1729
1811
1698
1758
1658
1702
1728
law
1700
1780
1632
1704
1616
1680
1773
1747
la^
1807
1773
1838
1754
1825
1727
1790
1752
1811
1792
1776
1850
1680
1776
160f
1562
1626
1691
1692
1762
1349
1700
1588
1657
1755
1795
1M6
1601
1777
1735
1799
1718
1747
1797
1826
1719
175^1
1802
f. B
. 0. 390
1785
1736
1803
1536
1630
1723
1806
1757
1793
1785
1706
17S3
1752
1825
1723
1789
664
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
HATION.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Pr.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Scotch.
Scotch.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Brougniart, Alex., mineralogist and geologist
, Adolphe T., botanist
Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist
Broussais, F. J. v., medical and physiological writer
Brown, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister
, Charles Brockd^n, a novelist
, John, D D., a miscellaneous writer
, John, a divine and author
, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet
, Maj. Gen. Jacob, general in war of 1812
, James, senator, mmister to France
, Robert, eminent botanist
Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and philos. writer
, George, count de, an officer in the Russian service
William George, a traveller in Africa, &c.
Scotch. Bruoe, Robert, the deliverer of his country
Scotch.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ger.
Ger.
Rom.
Rom.
Fr.
Dutch,
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Scotch.
-, James, a celebrated traveller
Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral
Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author
Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist
Brunei, Sir M. J., engineer of Thames Tunnel, &c.
Brunei, Jacques Charles, 'Bibliographer's Manual'
Bruno, St., founder of the Carthusian order
Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander
Lunenburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, mil. commander
Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government
-, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar
Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer
Bruyn, Cornelius le, traveller
Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary
Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric literateur
Bual, Nancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer
Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the reformation
Buchan, William, a physician and author
Scotch. Buchanan, George, an eminent writer
Scotch. , Claudius, a divine
- Eng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman
Eng. , George Villiers, son of the former
Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer
Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit, and miscellaneous writer
Fr. Buffon, George L. le Clerc, count of, celebrated naturalist
Fr. Bu^eaud, T. R., marshal of France
Ger. Buhle, J. G., hist, of philosophy, &c.
Nor. Bull, Ole, famous violinist
Swiss. Bullinger, Henry, reformer and author
Eng. Bulwer, (now Sir Edward Lytton,) novelist and dramatist
Eng. , Sir Henry L., diplomatist and pol. writer
Pruss. Bunsen, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian
Eng. Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress '
Swiss. Burckhardt, John Lotiis, oriental traveller
Ger. , John Charles, mathematician
Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician
Eng. Burgess, Thomas, bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological
En^. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author
Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer
Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman
Dutch. Burman, Peter, critic and editor .
Scotch. Burnes, Sir Alex., travels in Bokkara— ' Cabool,' «fec.
Scotch. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian
Eng. Burney, James, admiral and author
Eng. , Charles, a doctor of music
Scotch. Burns, Robert, a popular and national poet
Amer. Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-pres. U. S.
Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomv of Melancholy '
Ger. Buschin^, Anthony Frederick, philosopher and geological writer
Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman
Eng. Butler, Samuel, a humorous poet
Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author
Eng. , Samuel, bp. o\ Litchfield, editor of ' .^schyles,' &c.
Amer. , Richard, colonel, an officer in the revolution
Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist .
Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer
BORM.
D»l».
1770
1801
1779
1772
1839
1805
1771
1810
1715
1766
1722
1787
1777
1820
1828
1766
1835
1781
1605
1682
1698
1792
1814
1329
1730
1794
1750
1798
1688
1742
1763
1815
1769
1841
1377
1444
1721
1792
1735
1806
B.
c. 505
B.
0. 42
1644
1697
1652
1715
1762
1804
1837
1491
1551
1729
1791
1506
1582'
1766
1805
1592
1628
1627
1688
1778
1839
1661
1737
1707
1788
1784
1763
1810
1504
1575
1803
1791
1628
1688
1784
1815
1773
1815
1770
1844
1756
1837
1792
1730
1797
1520
1598
1668
1741
1805
1841
1643
1715
1739
1820
1726
1814
1759
1796
1756
1836
1576
1639
1721
1793
1738
1792
1612
1680
1692
1752
1774
1840
1791
1764
1829
1564
1629
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
665
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Ger. Btixtorf, John, (son of the preceding) lexicographer
Eng. Byng, honorable John, admiral
Eng. Byron, honorable John, admiral
Eng. , George Gordon, lord, a popular poet
BORN. DIBD.
1599 1644
1704 1757
1723 1786
1788 1824
Ital.
Port.
Span,
Fr.
Ital.
Fr.
Rom.
Ital.
Gr.
Span.
Ital.
Amer.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Fr.
Iial.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Rom.
Port.
Scotch.
Scotch.
Scotch.
Scotch.
Ger.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.-
Fr.
Span.
Horn.
Brit.
Ital.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Ital.
Irish.
Ital.
Eng.
Span.
Port.
Scotcl .
Gr.
Eng.
Amer,
gel-
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Span.
Fr.
Ilal
llal
Rom.
Eng,
Cabot, Sebastian (son of John) navigator .
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator
Cabrera, don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos
Cadet De Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher
Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator
Caille, Rene, ' Voyage k Tembouctou,' <kc,
Csesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author
Cajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author
Calaber, Quintus, poet . . .
Calderon de la Barca, don Pedro, dramatist
Calepino, Ambrose, author of a Lexicon in 11 languages
Calhoun, John C, senator of the U. S.
Calippus, astronomer and mathematician
Callimachus, a poet ....
Callisthenes, philosopher and historian
Calmet, Augustine, an erudite divine and author
Calogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author
Calonne, Charles Alex, de, minister of state
Calvin, John, one of the apostles of the Reformation
Calvert, Leonard, first governor of Maryland [See Baltimore]
Cambaceres, John J. R., distinguished revolutionist
Cambridge, duke of, sixth son of George III.
Camden, VVilliam, an eminent antiquary and historian
Camillus, Marcus Furius, a distinguished dictator
Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country
Campbell, George, a divine and author
, John, a multifarious writer
— , Thos., poet—' Life of Petrarch,' &c.
, Lord, jurist — ' Lives of Chancellors'
Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist
Campiston, John G. de, dramatist
Cange, Charles Dufresne, Sieur du, historian
Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet •
Capefigue, B. II. R., historian
Capraany, Don Antonio, historian
Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor
Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior
Cardan, Jercyn, philosopher, mathematician, and physician
Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist
Carey, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, translator
-, Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, and politician
, William, missionary to India .
Carissimi, James, musical composer
Carleton, Sir Guv, military commimder, and governor of Canada
Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author
Carlisle. Sir Anth., physician and medical writer
Carlos, don, son of Philip II. (hero of Schiller's tragedy)
, don M.J. ....
Carlyle, Thomas, historian and metaphysician
Cameades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy
Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist
Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician
Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translatress, &c.
, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller
Cartwright, Major John, parliament reformer
Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology .
Carver, .lonathan, traveller and author
, John, first governor of Plymouth (jolony
Cary, Henry F., poet— translator of ' Dante'
Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian
Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer
Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur., statesman and historian
Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator arainst Caesar
Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer
. 1477
f. 1500
. 1810
1769
1821
. f. 145(r
1838
B. 0. 100 B
c. 44
1510
1593.
. f. 250
1600
1687
1435
1511
1782
1850
f. B. c. 330
f. B. B. 150
B.
c. 328
1672
1757
1699
1768
1734
1802
1509
1564
1676
1753
1824
1774
1850
1551
1623
B.
C. 365
1517
1579
1709
1796
1775
1777
1844
1778
1722
1789
1656
1723
1610
1688
1770
1827
1799
1754
1810
188
217
(ab.) 100
1501
1576
1720
1783
1596
1661
1760
1839
1761
1822
1600
1724
1808
. 1720
J 795
1768
1840
1545
1568
1795
B. C. 218 B.
c. 128
1753
1823
1800
1836
1717
1806
,
183(
1740
1824
1789
1732
1780
1621
. 1772
1844
1474
15&4
1625
1712
470
516
B.
0. 42
1606
1635
666
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Ital. Castiglionc, Balthasar, statesman and author
Iial, Catalmi, Madame, eminent vocalist
Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist
Russ. Catherine II., a powerful and profligate empress
Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator
Fr. Catinat, Nicholas, military commander
Rom. Cato, Marcus Fortius, the Censor, statesman and author
Rom. , Marco Porcius, 'of Utica,' statesman
Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet .
Fr. Cauchy, Aug. L., mathematician
Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of ' The Holy Court '
Fr. Cavaignac, Gen., military commander and statesman
Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer
Eng. , Thomas, navigator
• Eng. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England
Pf. Cazales, James A. M. de. an eloquent orator
Ft. Cavlns, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer
R;m. Celsus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician
Gr. , an Epicurean philosopher
Rom. Censorius, a critic and grammarian
Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer
Span. Cervantes, Saavedra Michael, author of ' Don Quixotte '
Ital. Cesarotti, Melchior, a voluminous author
Scotch. Chalmers, George, miscellaneous writer
Eng.
Scotch.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Anier.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Swe.
Fr.
, Alex., 'General Biographical Dictionary,' «&c.
-, Thomas, p. D., theologian and political economist
Chambersj Sir William, an architect
Champollion, the younger, ' Monuments d I'Egypte,' &c.
Champollion-Figeac, historian and antiquary
Channing, William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist
Chantry, Sir Francis sculptor
Chapman, George, poetical translator
Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer
Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist
Charles Martel, statesman and warrior
Charles, J. A. C, natural philosopher
V. E. P., historian and literateiir
Charlemagne, emperor of the West, and king of France
Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior
Charlevoix, Peter F. X. de, a Jesuit historian
Dutch. Chasse, David H., baron, military commander .
Fr. Chateaubriand, poet, statesman, and traveller
Fr.- Chatel, Abbe Fer. F., theological reformer
Eng. Chatham, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman
Eng. Chatterlon, Thomas, famed for precocious talent
Eng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry
Amer Chauncey, Charles, D. D., president of Harvard College
Amer , Commodore Isaac, naval commander
Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist
Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer
Ital. Cherubini, musical composer
Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller, and statesman
Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist
Gr. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta— one of the seven wi?e men
Amer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman
Eng. Chittyj Joseph, author of numerous works on law .
Pol. Chlopicki. J., military commander— dictator of Poland .
Fr. Choiseul-Stainville, C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author
Swe. Christina, queen (daughter of G. Adol{)hus)
Afric. <'hristophe, a slave— afterwards king of Hayti
Gr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher
Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator
Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet
Amei Church, Benjamin, military commander .
Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet
Rom. Cicero, Marcus TuTlius, one of the greatest of orators
Ital. Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer .
Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general
Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, the patriot, flourished .
Rom Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, partisan of Marius, flourished
Ital. Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and pliysician
BORN.
DI89
1468
1529
1782
184
1680
1749
1729
1796
B
c. 62
1637
1712
B. c. 232 B
c. 147
B. C. 95 B
c. 46
B. c. 86
1780
1583
1651
1505
1557
1410
1492
1752
1S05
1720
1765
f. 30
. f. 50
f. 240
1067
1723
1547
1616
1730
1808
1744
1825
1759
ia34
t
1770
1846
1796
1790
1832
• . 1779
pist
1780
1842
. 1781
1841
1557
1634
. 1727
1801
1756
1832
741
. ' 1746
1825
742
814
1682
1718
1682
1761
1765
1769
1848
1795
1708
1778
1752
1770
1328
1400
1671
1840
1688
1752
er
1694
1773
1842
. 1806
1786
f. B. c. 598
1752
1843
1776
1841
1772
1762
1626
1689
1767
1820
B. C. 280 B.
c. 207
344
407
1731
1764
1639
1718
1671
1557
B. c. 105 B.
c. 43
1754
1801
B.
c. 449
B.C. 456.
B.C. 87
1734
1799
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
667
NATIOM. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution
Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician
Amor. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College
Scotch. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa
Eng. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, statesman and historian
Eng. Clarke, Samuel, Dr., theologian and philosopher
Eng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mmeralogist
Eng, , Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator
Eng. , Sir James, medical author
Amer. Clark, Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist . .#
Eng, Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist
Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist
Gr. Cleanthes, a Stoic philosopher, flourished
Ital. Clementi, Mazio, musical composer -
Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men, flourished
Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . ^ .
Amer Clinton, George, governor of New- York, and vice-president of U.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
E..g.
Lng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Ital.
En;
Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New-York
Clive, Robert, lord, military commander .
Cloquet, Hypoliie (brother of Jules), anatomist
Clot, or Clot Dey, surgeon and medical writer (in Egypt)
Cobbctt, William, political writer
Cogan, Thomas, physician, and miscellaneous writer
Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge
Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman
Colburn, Zerali, ])recocious arithmetician
(volden, Cadwailadcr, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c.
-, Cadwailadcr D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c.
Coleridge, Henry N., literateur
, Samuel T,, poet and metaphysician
Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral . . ,
Collins, William, a popular poet
Coleman, George, dramatic writer
, Benjamin, a learned divine (in Boston)
Colman, George, the younger, dramatist .
Colombat de I'lsere, medical writer
Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America
Colton, C. C, author of 'Lacon'
Scotch. Combe, George, pln-enologist and philosopher
Scotch. , Andrew, medical and physiological writer
Fr. Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon, Protestant militar^r commander
Fr. Gondii lac, Stephen Bonnot de, metaphysical writer
Chinese Confucius, a celebrated philosopher
Eng. Congreve, William, a comic dramatist
Gr. Conon, an Athenian general
Fr. Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician
Constantine (the Great), the first Christian emperor
VII. (Porphyrogenitus), emperor and author
- (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Eng.
EnsT.
Eni.
Amer,
Ens.
Eng.
Irii
Cook, James, a celebrated circumnavigator
Cooke, Thomas, editor and translator
, George F,, an eminent actor
Cooper, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer
, Sir Astley Paxton, physician and medical writer
, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.)
, Coote, Sir Eyre, military commantler in India
Pruss. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer— the reviver of the Py-
thagorean system of the universe
Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century, before Christ,
Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior
Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vie. de, political writer
Cornaro, Lewis, a noble — author of a book on temperance
Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer
Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist .
BOOM.
DIED.
1818
• ' 1713
1765
1703
1767
1788
1827
1608
1674
1675
1729
1767
1621
1760
1832
. * 1810
1841
1761
1705
1773
B.C. 260
1832
B.C. 559
B
C. 30
S. . 1739
1812
1769
1828
1725
1774
1787
1795
1835
1736
1818
1549
16^H
1619
1683
1804
1810
1688
1776
1769
i8:m
(ab.) 1800
1843
1834
1748
1810
1720
1756
1733
1784
1673
1747
1762
1836
(ab.) 1800
1441
1506
1773
1S32
1788
1797
1621
1686
1715
1780
B.C. 550
1670
1728
B.
c. 390
1767
ia30
274
337
905
959
1403
1453
1728
1776
1702
1756
1756
1812
1725
1783
1768
1841
1759
1840
1726
1783
Gr.
Rom
Fr.
Ital.
Fr.
Fr.
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Port.
Ital.
Cornelius, Peter, painter (in fresco, «fec.)
Cornel li, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian
Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military commander
Cortes, Ferdinand, the brutal conqueror of Mexico
Qosta, Paola, literateur ....
Dutch, Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing
Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . . .
Fr. Cottin, Sophia, madame, a novelist ....
{ 1543
B. c. 488
1788
1467
1565
1606
1684
1625
1709
1718
1738
1805
1485
1554
1771
1830
1370
\^l
1773
18CI
668
THE world's progress.
NATION
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
Rom.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Scotch.
Eng.
Eng.
Scotch.
Eng.
Eng.
Scotch.
Irish.
Rom.
Fr.
Fr.
NAMS AND PROFESSION.
Cotton, John (of Boston), a learned divine
Coulomb, Charles, Augustine de, philosopher .
Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist
, Paul Louis, political writer
Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author
Cousin, Louis, historian
, Victor, statesman and metaphysician
Cowley, Abraham, poet
Cowper, William, pc^t
Coxe, William, traveller and historian
Crabbe, Rev. George, poet
Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer
Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . •
Crassus, Marcus Lucinius (the Rich), military commander
Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist
Crebillon, Prosper Jolyott da; tragic poet
Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian
Crockett, David, eccentric statesman
Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist
Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor of Wolsey .
, Oliver, military commander and statesman
Cruden, Alexander, author of a Concordance to the Bible
Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature
Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher _ .
CuUen, William, an eminent physician
Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, military commander
,Richard, a multifarious writer
Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, «fec.
Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator
Curtius, Rufus Ciuintus, history . .
Cuvier. baron, one of the greatest of naturalists ,
,' Fred, (brother ot the baron), naturalist .
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church
Cyril, St., the apostle of the Sclavi . .
BORN.
1585
1736
1772
1774
1725
1627
1618
1731
1747
1754
1723
1489
1772
1674
1693
1490
1599
1701
1780
1617
1712
1721
1732
1768
1750
1769
1773
D
Fr. Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar
Swe. Dalin, Olaus Von, the father of Swedish poetry
Amer. Dallas, .James Alexander, secretary treasury U. S.
Amer. , Commodore A. J., naval commander
Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician
Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer
Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator
Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist
Eng. , W., R. A., Author of pictorial works on India
Ger. Dannecker, sculptor ('Ariadne,' &c.)
Ital. Dante Alighieri, ' the sublimest of the Italian poets '
Eng. D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny BurTiey), novelist
Eng. Darwin, Erasmus, a poet, physician, and botanist .
Aust. Daun, Leopold Josepii Mary, count de, military commander
Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and literateur . .
Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius
Amer. Davies, Samuel, president of Princeton College— theol. writer
Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian
Eng. Davis, John, a navigator— discoverer of ' Davis' Straits '
Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist
Amer. Deane, Silas, mmister of the U. S. to France
Amer. Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars
Fr. Debrue, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer
Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist, . . •
Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. S. navy
Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer .
Fr. Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer
Fi. Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist
Fr. DeliUe, James, a celebrated poet
Fr. Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer
Gr. Democritus, a celebrated philosopher
Gr. Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators
Eng. Denham, lieut. colonel Dixon, an enterprising traveller
Ital. Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian
1651
1708
1759
1791
1766
1699
1652
1790
1758
1265
1752
1721
1705
1761
1808
1724
1576
1778
1758
1751
1731
1778
1779
1661
1749
1794
1738
1688
B. 0. 4qpt
B. c. 381 B
1786
1731
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
MATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Rubs. Derzhaviiie, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman
Fr. Desaix, Louis Charles Anttionv, military commander
Fr. Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher .
Fr. . Dessaix, J. M., count, marshal of France
Afr. Dessalines, John .Tames, emperor of Hayti
Fr. Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer
Dutch. Deurhoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author
Amer. Dewees, W. P., medical writer
Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman
Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope
Eng. Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and nmsical composer
Eng. , Thomas, dramatist and song writer (son of Charles)
Eng. , Rev. Thomas F., bibliographer
Eng. Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher '
Eng. Dickens, Charles, novelist
Fr. Diderot, Denis, first editor of ' Encyclopredie Methodique '
Fr. Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder
Fr. , Firmin, publisher, and member of Deputies
Fr. , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller
Egypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3000 to GO(X) works
Pruss. Ditibitsch-Sabalkanski, count, military commander
Pruss. Diefienbach, J. F., surgeon ....
Ger. Dindorf, William, phifologist
Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander
Mace, Dinocrates, an architect— (built Alexandria, «Ssc.)
Gr. Dion Cassius, autlior of Roman liistory
Gr. Dio Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher
Gr. Diodorus Siculu^', a historian
Gr. Diogenes, the Cynic, a philosopher
Gr. Diogenes Laeriius, biographer
Gr. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, critic and historian
Gr, , a geographer . . . .
Eng. Dodd, Dr. William, miscellaneous writer .
Eng, Doddridge, Philip, a gifted and pious divine and writer
Ger, Doebereinar, J. W., chemist
Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer ,
Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country (Genoa)
Scotch. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator
Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator
Eng. Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator
Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius Van, inventor of the thermometer
Fr. Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer
Eng. Dryden, John, an eminent poet
Fr. Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author
Fr. Duchesne, Andrew, an historian
Fr. Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian
Fr. Duguescland, Bertrand, military commander
Fr. Dumas, Alex., novelist, traveller, &c.
Fr. , J. B., chemist
Fr, Dumont, John, traveller and political writer
Fr. d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator
Fr. Dumourier, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander
Scotch. Dunbar, William, a poet
Scotch. Duncan, William, logician and translator
Scotch. , Adam, viscount, a successful admiral
Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian
Fr, Dupin, Louis Ellies, an ecclesiastical historian
Fr. , A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman
Fr. , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman
Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c. (at Philadelphia)
Fr. Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist
Fr. Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral
Eng, Durham, J. G. Lambton, earl of, governor general of Canada
Fr. Duroc, Michael, duke of Friuli, military commander
Amer. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer
Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian
Irish. Edgeworth, Maria, novelist
Eng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior ,
BORN.
DIED.
1743
1816
1768
1800
1596
1660
1768
1800
1680
1754
1650
1717
1768
1841
1625
1672
1500
1748
1814
IS41
1849
1713
1784
1730
1804
1764
1830
1790
f. B
. c. 30
1785
1831
1795
1802
1775
1825
f. 1
I. c. 350
f. 30
155
f.
B. c. 10
X
. c. 413 B.
f. 140
c. 323
52
1729
1777
1702
1756
1780
1468
1560
1474
1521
f. 623
1545
1590
1572
1634
1631
1700
1803
1584
1640
170i
1772
. 1314
1380
1803
1800
1726
1790
1842
1739
1823
1465
1535
1717
1760
1731
1804
1766
1839
1637
1719
1783
1784
1760
1844
1778
1835
1610
1683
I
1792
1840
1772
1813
1752
1817
1674
1730
. (about) 1770
1330
1376
670
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAMfi AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Edwards, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician
Eng. , Bryan, an historian
, W. F., anatomist and physiologist (bom at Jamaica)
, Mihie (son of the last), naturalist
Gr. Eginhard, an historian .....
Ger. Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist
Ger. Eichbom, F. C, theologian and jurist
Kng. Eldon, Lord, lord chancellor of England
Scotch. Elgin, T. Bunce, earl of, diplomatist— remover of * Elgin Tiarbles
Eng. Elizabeth, queen .....
Amer. Elliot, John, ' the apostle to the Indians' .
Amer. Ellioit, J. D., commodore in American navy
Amer. Ellsworth, Oliver, a distinguished chief justice of the U. S. .
l^Mjr. Emerson, William, an eminent mathematician-
Irish. Emmet, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator
(icr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher
Eng. Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer
Ff. Eon De Beaumont, Chevalier, an eccentric writer
(Jr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general
Gr. Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher
Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of philosophers
Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and author
Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet ....
Span. Ericeira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian
Eng. Erigena, John Scotus, a learned writer of the ninth century .
Pruss. Erman, A. G., 'Travels in Siberia,' «fec.
Ger. Ernesti, John, Augustus, an eminent critic
Scotch. Erskine, Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator
Span, Escobar, Y. Mendoza Anthony, a celebrated casuist
Fr. Esquirol, J, E. D., writer on insanity
Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer ....
Eng. Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior
Aust. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman
Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician
Fr. Eugene, Francis, prince, a great warrior (in the German service)
Swiss. Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician
Gr. Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet
Gr. Eusebius, bishop of Caesavea, a learned father of the church, and
ecclesiastical historian ....
Rom. Eutropius, an historian ....
Rom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect
Eng. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer
Amer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist
BORN.
1703
1743
1777
1795
DISS.
1767
1800
839
1750
1838
1771
1841
1533
1603
1601
1690
1785
1845
1745
1807
1701
1782
1764
1827
1741
1797
1728
1810
B.
0. 363
f. 40
0. 342 B.
c. 371
1467
1536
1525
1595
1614
1699
1806
1707
1781
1750
1823
1589
1669
1772
1840
1770
1567
1601
c. 300
1663
1736
1707
1783
c. 480
f. 360
1620
1790
340
1651
1847
F
Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer
Rom. Fabiusj Quintus M. V., a skillul warrior
Ger. Fabricius, John Albert, a critic and bibliographer
Ital. , John Christian, a celebrated entomologist
Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer
Pruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher
Eng Fairfax, Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war
Eng. Falconer, William, a poet ....
Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice (beheaded)
Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist ....
Port. Faria Y. Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet
Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist
Ger. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing
Vav^. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator
Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer
l>. Fenelon, Francis de Salignac de la Motte, an able writer, and one of
the most virtuous of men
8we Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist
I'lng. Ferguson, James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c.
Kng. , Adam, an historian and moral philosopher
Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian
Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest— cardinal, archbishop of Lyons
Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist
Span Feyjoo Y. Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer
(tal Ficino. Marsiliua, a Platonic ( hilosopher
B.
0. 20i
1668
1736
1742
1807
1732
1803
1686
1736
1611
1671
1730
1769
1355
1790
1588
1647
1678
1707
1466
1721
1777
1632
1693
and one o
f
1651
1716
1743
1790
cc.
1710
1776
1724
1816
1652
1735
1763
1838
1775
1833
1701
1764
1433
1499
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
671
NATIO:
Eng.
Ital.
Eng.
Fr.
Ger.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Fj-.
Ger
(3er.
Fr.
Eng.
Ital.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Enir.
Eng.
Eng.
Irish.
Amer.
Pruss.
Ger.
En?.
Fr.^
Eng.
En^.
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
> NAME AND PROFESSION?.
Fielding, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist
Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria
Flavel, John, an eminent nonconformist divine
Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate
Fleischer. H. L., orientalist
Fletcher, John, a dramatist .
Fleury, Claude, a divine and historian
, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman
Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian
Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer
Fliigel, G. L., philologist and historian
Folien, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S..
Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, miscellaneous writer
Foote, Samuel, a comic writer and actor
Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer
Ford, John, an early dramatic writer
Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman
Fosbrooke, Rev. T. I)., archaeologist (Ency. Antiq.)
Foster, John, essayist
Fouche, Joseph, duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist
Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system
Fox, John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs'
, George, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers
, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators
Francis, Sir Philip, ])olitical writer
Franklin, Benjanrin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman '
P'rederick II., the Great, king— an able general and author
Freytag, G. W. F., Arabic Dictionary. <fcc.
Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator
Froissart, John, a chronicler .-ind poet
Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist
P^uller, Thomas, a divine and historian
Fuller, Andrew, an eminent liaptist miidster
Fulton, Robert, the introducer of steamboats in America
Furitiere, Antony, a philologist
BORN.
1707
1627
1632
1801
1576
1640
1653
1780
1755
1802
17%
1657
1721
1688
1586
1780
1770
1763
1772
1517
1624
1748
1740
1706
1712
1778
1333
1780
1608
1754
1767
1620
DIED.
1764
1547
1691
1710
1625
1722
1743
1840
17&4
1840
1757
1771
1639
1841
1842
1820
ia37
1587
1690
1806
k^
1790
1786
1594
1400
1845
1661
1815
1815
1683
G
Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author
Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ......
Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian
Amer. Gaines, Maj. Gen. E. P., military commander
Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician
Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philo.sopher and astronomer
Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science
ot phrenology ......
Swiss-Amer. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, arid ethnol.*
hcotch. Gait, John, novelist
Ital.
Port.
Ger.
Span.
Span.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Ene.
Fr.
Ger.
Bar.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr
Rom.
Fr.
Swiss
Oer.
Anior
Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher— di-scoverer
of galvanic electricity .....
Gama, Vasco de, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope
Gans, Edward, jurist
Garcia, Manuel, musical composer . .'.','
Garcias Lasso, de la Vega, ' the Prince of Spanish poetry ' .
Gamier, Count Germain, jurist ....
Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist
Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry Prince of
Wales lor a misdemeanor . . . . .
Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher
Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the revolution
Gay, John, a popular poet .....
Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist ....
Gellert, Christian Furchtesrott, a poet and miscellaneous writer .
Genghis Khan, a celebrated conqueror
Genlis, Stephania Felicite, countess de, miscellaneous writer
Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century
Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c.
Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cassar, militaiy commander .
Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author
Ge-^ner, Conrad, an eminent U'lturalist
; ..John Matthi;;^ n phi!()lo£ri«t ....
Gerry. Elbridg(\ a di^^iiis'rui.-he I fiatrioi. vice-president U. S.
1670
1755
1728
1777
131
1564
1758
1761
1779
1737
1798
1779
1503
1754
1716
1350
1592
1728
1688
1778
1715
1164
1746
1770
1363
1516
1691
1740
1829
1806
1849
1642
1828
1849
1839
1798
1.524
1841
1832
1536
1821
1779
1413
1655
1806
1732
1850
1769
1227
1830
19
1429
1.^6?
1761
1311
672
THE world's progress.
NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Ital. Giannone, Peter, an historian ....
Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of Enjlish historians
Amer. Gibson, Col. John and Col. George, both officers in the Revolution
Eng. Gifford, William, a critic and poet
Eng. — , John, an historical and political writer
Eng. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in America
Eng. Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar, and author
Scotch. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c.
Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences
Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, a chemist
Fr. Godfrey of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the crusades
Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, «fcc.
Eng. Godwin, William, novelist and metaphysician
Ger. Goethej a celebrated dramatist
Ita). Goldoni, Charles, ' the Italian Moliere ' .
Irisli Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer
Dutch. Golius, James, an orientalist and lexicographer
Span. Gonsalvo of Cordova, a celebrated warrior
Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist, f. B. C. Hth century
Fr. Gourgaud, Gen., military commander under Napoleon
Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets ,
Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat
Rom. Caius Sempronius
Ger. Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer
Scotch. Grahame, James, author of ' History of the United States '
Scotch. Grahame, James, a poet ....
Scotch. Grant, Anne (of Laggan), novelist, essayist, &c.
Eng. Granville, John Carteret, earl, a statesman
Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law, f 12th century
Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman
Dutch. Gravesande, Wm. Jacob, a geometrician .and philosopher
Eng. Gray, Thomas, a poet .....
Gregory Nazianzen, St., Christian writer
Gregory of Nyssa, St., do. .
Fr. Gregory (of Tours), St., an historian .
Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, an author
Ital. Gregory VII., the Great, pope (Hildebrand), a celebrated despot
Scotch. Gregory, James, a philosopher and mathematician .
Scotch. Gregory, David, do. do.
Irish. Gregory, George, D. D., a miscellaneous writer
Gregory, Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer .
Greene, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution
Grey, lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition
Grey, Earl, statesman— whig premier for William IV.
Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist
Grimke, Thomas S., jurist . ,
Grimm. J, L. C, miscellaneous writer
Eng,
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger
Amer.
Ger.
Dutch, Gronovius, James, in erudite critic
Ger.
Dutch.
Fr.
Amer.
Ger.
Ital.
Ger.
Ital.
Nor.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Swe.
Grotefend, G. F., p- lologist
Grotius, or De Groot, Hugh, an eminent scholar
Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France
Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. (Tenn.)
Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist ....
Guarini, John Baptist, a poet
Guericke, Otto, exp. philos.— inventor of the air-pump
Guicciardlni, Francis, an historian
Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior
Guise, Francis of Lorraine, duke of, a celebrated warrior
Guise, Charles of. Cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman
Guise, Henry, of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior
Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician
Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician— inventor of the ' Gunter's scalej
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, an able warrior
Scotch. Guthrie, William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c.
Ger. Guttemberg, John, one of the inventors of printing .
Pruss. Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China
&c.
BORN.
DIBD.
1676
1758
1737
1794
1757
1826
1758
1818
1583
1697
1771
1747
ia36
1767
1829
1748
1805
1100
1830
1755
18:^
1749
1831
1707
1793
1731
1774
1596
1667
1443
1515
1402
B
c. 133
B.
c. 121
1632
1703
1765
1811
1755
1838
1690
1763
1750
1820
1688
1742
1716
1771
328
389
331
396
544
593
544
604
1085
1648
1685
1661
1710
1754
1808
1774
1841
1741
1786
1537
1554
1764
1845
1745
1812
1786
1834
1785
1645
1716
1775
183G
1583
1645
1766
1777
18iO
1616
1664
1537
1612
1602
1686
1482
1540
1015
1085
1519
1563
1525
1574
1550
1588
1787
1581
1619
1594
1633
1708
1770
1400
146S
1803
Pere.
Ger.
Hafiz, Mohammed, a poet — the Anacreon of Persia
Hahn, Simon Frederick, an historian
1389
1729
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
673
WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Ger. Hahnemann, founder of ' Homoeopathy ' in medicine
Ger. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist
Ens:;. Ilakluyl, Richard, author of voyages, &c. of the English .
Eng. Hale, Sir Matthevi^, an eminent and incorruptible judge
Em:.. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer
Scotch. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c.
l-lng. Hail, Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator
VjUS. Hallam, Henry, historian' ....
Swiss, Haller, Albert Von, miscellaneous writer
Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician
Amor. Hamilton, Alexander, a statesman— first secretary of treasury, U. S.
Iri.-h. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer
Eng. Hamilton, Thomas, Captain, novelist, SMen and Manners in America
Ger. Hammer, Von, baron, historian and orientalist
Eng. Hampden, John, a celebrated patriot
Anier. Hancock. John, a distinguished patriot — president of Congress
(^.er. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers
ISor. Hansieen, C, mathematician antl astronomer
Eug. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, a celebrated statesman
Sar. llaroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of leaniiuir
Amer. Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist . ^ .
Eug. Harris, James, com))ilcr of the first Cyclopedia, &c.
Aincr. Harrison, Gen. W. II., military commander, and pres. U. S.
Amer. Harvard, Jt)hn, founder of Harvard Colleij*;
Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of tlic circulation of the blood .
Ger. Ease, ITenry, classical antiquarian ....
Enir. Haslam, John, writer on insanity
lOiig. Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India
l']ng. Hastings, marciuis of, military commander
Ger. Ilauser, (Jasper, a mysterious 'wild-l)oy'
l''r. Ilaussoz, Baron, jninister of Charles X. — traveller
I'r. Hauy, Renatus Justus, mineralogist ....
Eng. IIawk(!, Edward, lord, a brave and successAd admiral
l']n<r. Hawkesworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer .
Ell;:. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator— originator of the slave trade
Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrattxl musical composer
liiig. Ha'yley, William, a })oet and miscellaneoiff! writer .
Amer. Hayne, Robert Y., governor of South Carolina, and senator of U. S.
Eug. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic ....
Fug. Heber, Reginald, a divine, and poet
Cier. Hedcrich, Benjamin, a lexicographer ....
(Jer. Iledwig, John, a physician and botanist
Ger. Heeren, A. 11. L., historian .....
Ger. Hegel, G. W. F.,meta})hysician .
Ger. Heine.' Henry, poet and litnrateur ....
Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa), the first romance writer, flourished in the 4th
Ger. II(;lvicus, Christopher, a chronologist ....
Vm'i. llemans, Felicia I)., poetess ....
Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antifiuarian. and theologian
Vv. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch .
Euir. Henry, Robert, an historian .....
Aduu- Henrv. Patrick, an orator and patriot
Gr. Ileraclitus, a philosopher, flourished before Christ
Gt!r. Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer
Hermann, J. G. J., philologist ....
Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, 'History of Philosophy,' dtc
Hermogenes, a rhetorician, flourished ....
Herodian, an historian ....
Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are extant,
Ilerold, L. G. F., musical composer
Herrera, Anthony, an historian ....
Herricic, Robert, a poet .....
Herschel, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers
Ilerschell, Dr. Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Jews in England
Herschell, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher
Hervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer
Hesio(l, a poet, contemporary otilomer, floin-ished
Ileyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer .
Hickes, Georgie. a theolosian and philologist
Ililaire, Geof. St.. naturalist
Hill, viscount, military commander (Pen insula and Waterloo)
Hill, sir John, a botanist and nnilii.'nrious writ(>r
r.
G(
(^c;
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Fr.
Span
En-.
Enir.
.few.
F.n-.
Eti-.
Gr.
Gor.
En-.
Fr.
En-
En-
BORN.
1755
1805
1553
1609
1766
1788
1764
1708
1656
1757
1758
1789
1774
1594
1737
16»4
1784
1661
1796
1670
1773
1569
1789
I7r4
1733
1754
1778
1742
1713
1715
1520
1732
1745
1791
1783
1675
1730
1760
1770
1799
century.
1581
1794
1802
1553
1718
17.36
504
1744
1772
1804
180
f. 230
c. 484
1792
1559
1591
1738
1760
1713
. 907
1729
1(>42
1772
1772
1716
DIED.
1843
674
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
Amer.
Gr.
Kn<r.
Ainor.
Vv.
eh.
I)
i-:.i
( .' r.
Mil-
f']iii(.
Mm-.
Dmch.
Kii'4.
Kn'Z.
Mill?.
Kn'i.
I';n.'-,'.
Ainer.
Amer.
Rom.
Mii<r.
Mng.
Amer.
Favj:.
Favj;.
Fr."
Fr.
Amer.
Truss.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
.Tew. Hlllel, the eUler, one of the compilers of the Talmud
Ilillhouse, James A., poet
Hippocrates, (he father of medicine
Iloadley, William, a celebrated prelate and author
Hohart, .lohn Henry, bishop of New York
Hobbes, Thomas, a'philosnpher and translator
Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander
Hofor, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot
Hofland, Barbara, novelist
Hoflmann, K. T. A., novelist .
Hojrg, .James, ' The Ettrick Shepherd '
Holberir, Louis, baron de, an historian
Holcroit, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer
Holingshed, a chronicler
Holland, Lord, statesman and literateur
Holland, Philemon, a translator
•. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America '
h. Home, John, a divine, dramatist, and historian
Homer, the " greatest of poets," [supposed to have] flourished
Hone, William, author of 'Every Hay Book' and political works
Hood, Samuel, viscount, a navalofficer
Hood, Thomas, poet and humorist ....
Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet ....
Hook, Robert, a mathematician ....
Hook, Theo. E., novelist and humorist
Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman History .
Hooker, Sir W. J., botanist
Hooker. Richard, an eminent divine
Hoole, John, a poet and translator ....
Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs
Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer
Hopkins, Samuel, an eminent divine and author
Hopkinson, Joseph, jurist and statesman .
Horace, Quintus Flaccus, an eminent poet
Home, George, a learned prelate
Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician .
Hossack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer
IFowanl, John, a celebrated j)hilanthropist
Hudson, Henry, discoverer of" Hudson river"
Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author .
Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman
Hull. Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer., &c.)
Humboldt, F. H A., baron, traveller — geog. and nat. philosopher
Scotch. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher
Hunruades, John, a ccdebraKMl warrior
Hunt, Leigh, poet and essayist
Husklsson, Rt. hon. Williani, an able statesman
Huss, John, the great Boluniiian reformer .
Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer
Hutchinson, Thos., a distinguished gov. of Massachusetts, and historian
Scotch. Hutton, James, a geologist and philosopher
Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician
Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author
Ind. Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior .
Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet ....
Span. Ignatius De Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits .
V.w-i. Inchbald, Elizabeth, a dramatist and novelist
Amer. Inman. Henry, portrait and landscape painter .
V.w'i. Ireland, W. H., author of the 'Shakspeare Forgeries'
MuH. Irving, Rev. Edward, theological writer
(ir Isa^us, an orator ....
<.'r. Isocrates, an orator .
Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico
Amer. Jackson, Gen. Andrew, military commander, Pres. IT. S.
Ger. .Tacobi, Fred. IL, philosopher, novelist, «&c.
Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Irish.
Amer
BORM.
DIED
B.C. 112
1789
1^1
B. c. 4G0
1G76
1761
177()
1830
l."8.S
1679
i7t;s
1797
1765
181 (1
1814
1776
- 18:J2
1772
18; ;5
1685
1751
1744
180'.)
irKS:i
1773
1810
1551
16.30
1763
18.^7
1724
1808
. B. c. 907
m-i
1724
1816
1778
1845
1687
1763
1635
1702
1788
nil
17()3
! 15.53
1601)
1717
180.3
. 1495
1555
1831
1721
1803
1770
1842
B. C. 65 B
c. 8
. 1730
1792
1731
bSOC)
1769
1835
1726
1790
. f. 1600
1630
1721
1802
1775
1843
1769
1711
177(i
ii5f;
1769
183!
1376
1 !!-■■)
1094
i7i;
n 1711
ITNt
1726
1797
1737
Hv3
1629
1705
1 ls.l
f. B. c. ,550
1491
15.'.'.
1756
H.i
1801
i-^n;
1792
1831
B.C. 418
B.C. 436
1784
18.i.l
1767
iKir)
1743
1819
1764
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
675
KATIOM NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Fr. Jdcotot, Jean J., educatronal writer .... 1770
Dutch. .Tacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist .... 1727
Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar . . . 1750
Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist anil historian ....
Fr. Janin, Jules, lUerateur ..... 1804
Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect .... 1585
Fr. Jasmin, Jacques, a barber— poet .... 1798
Amer. .lay, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman . . . 174.'^
Amer. Jetlerson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d president of the United States 1743
Scotch. .TeflVey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic . . . 1773
MiiL'. .leaner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inoculation . . 1749
I'liiii. .lenyns, Soame, a poet and miscellaneous writer . . 1704
Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church
{.'(I- .hjrome, of Prague, a reformer, companion of IIuss
Jewel, John, a learned prelate and author .... 1522
Joan of Arc, " the greatest of lieroines" . . . 1410
Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty . . 1649
Johnson, Samuel, "the colo.ssus of English literature" . . 1709
Jomelli, Nicholas, a dramatic and musical composer . . 1714
Jomiai. Henry, baron, militai-y writer . . . 1775
Jones, Inijro, an eminent architect .... 1572
•Jones, William, a divine and author .... 1726
Jones, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer . 1746
Jones, John Paul, a captain in the navy of the United States . "»736
Jonson, Benjamin, a celebrated poet and dramatist . . . -574
Jortin, Dr. John, a learned theologian and author . . 1698
Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) . . 1761
Josephus, a celebrated historian and warrior ... 37
Jouliroy,Thco. S, metaphysician and statesman . . . 1796
Jourdan, J. B., marshal of France .... 1762
Juan, or John, of Austria, don, a warrior .... 1546
Judah, Ilakkadosh, a famous rabbi, and Talmudist . . 129
Juel, Nicholas, a celebrated admiral .... 1629
Julian, Flavins (Jlaudius, a Roman emperor and author . 331
.Tulien, A. J., orientalist ..... 1799
Junge, Joachim, philosopher ..... 1587
Junius, Adrian, a voluminous writer .... 1512
Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer . . 1771
Junot, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. . .1784
Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist ..... 1748
Justin Martyr, one of the fathers of the church . . .91
Justin, Latin historian . . . ^ . . f b. C. 200
Juvenal, Dccius Junius, the \r -^^^i vehement of satirists
Vavz.
Fng.
Iiul.
S\vis.^.
Fuu-.
Eng.
Fiiii-.
Sco"tch
Eriff.
Eng.
Jew.
I''r.
l-r.
Ger.
.lew.
Dan.
Fr.
Ger.
Dutch.
Fr.
Gr.
Rom.
Rom.
K
Ger. Kffimpfer, a naturalist, traveller, and historian .
Ger. Kfestner, Abraham Gotlielf, a mathematician and astronomer
Fr. Kalb, baron de, who generou.^ly aided the American cause
Scotch. Kames, Henry Home, lord, a judge and author
Gor. Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician
Russ. Karamsin, Nicholas M., historiographer of the empire
Eng. Kean, Edmund, tragedian ....
Enir. Keats, John, a poet .....
Scotch. Keith, James, an officer in the Rus.sian and Prussian service
Irish. Kelly, Michael, a composer and singer
Hng. Kemble, John Philip, a celebrated tragedian
Tr. Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the " Imitation of Christ"
Kii'-,-. Kennet, White, a learned prelate and author
iMiii-. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and biblical critic
Anicr. Kent, James, jurist— chancellor of N. Y.
'•♦T. Kepler. John, an eminent astronomer
<<'otch. Kerr, Robert, a miscellaneous writer .
-\nifM-. King, Rufus. statesman and diplomatist . . . -, .
1; i ii. Kinssborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican Antiquities
iluii. Kitchiner, William, writer on cookery
Pni.^s. Klaproth, Henry J., philologist and ethnologist .
Fi-. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer
Ger. Klopstock, "the Milton of Germany" .
Scoir^.:. Knox, John, the great champion of the reformation
Kng. Knox. Dr. Vicesimus, a divine and mi.'^cellaneous writer
1651
1719
1717
1696
1724
1765
1787
1796
1696
1762
17.57
1380
1660
1718
1763
1571
1755
1795
17&4
1754
1721
1.505
1752
676
THE world's progress.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Knox, Henry, militaiy officer and statesman
Ger. Koch, Christopher William, an historian
Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist
Polish. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a warrior and patriot
(Served in the American army during the revolution.)
Ger, Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick, Fer. Von, an historian, «fec.
Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist
Russ. Kutosofi; Michael L. G., field marshal
aORM.
DIED.
1750
1806
1737
1813
1794
1746
1817
1761
1819
1788
1745
1813
Fr. Laborde, Alex. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. .
Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. de la Ville, count do, naturalist
Fr. Lacretello, Charles, traveller and literateur
Lactantius, L. C, a father of the church ; styled the Christian Cicero
Fr Lacroix, Silvestre F., mathematician
Fr. Laennec, 11. T. If., an eminent physician
Fr La Fayette, G. M., marquis, «Src., military commander and statesman
Fr. La Fayette, George W., statesman
Fr. Lafontaine, " an inimitable fabulist" ....
Gei. La Fontaine, Aug. H. .!., author of 200 volumes, miscellaneous
Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman
Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Louis, an able mathematician
Fr. La Harpe, Jolui Francis de, a dramatist, critic, &c.
Swiss. La Harpe, F. C, statesman and author
Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer
Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist ....
Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., a general of the revolution of 1789
Fr. Lamartine, poet, historian, traveller, and statesman
Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .....
Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist
Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer
Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of Education
Eng. Lander, Richard and John, travellers in Africa
Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts
p]ng. Lane, Edward William, orientalist— author of Modern Egyptians, &c.
ItaU Langfranc, a learned archbishop of Canterbury
Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury
Eng. Lansdowne, Win. Petty, marquis ol—j)remier
Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, Pres. of Council .
Fr. Laplace, marquis'Peter Simon, an eminent astronomer and geometrician
Eng. Lardner, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine
Fr. Las Casas, biographer of Napoleon, «kc.
Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian
Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate— martyred for being a reformer
Eng. Laud, William, a prelate, famed for his tyraruiy and superstition
Amer. Laurens, Henry, a patriot and statesman
Fr Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander
Swisis. I^avater, John Caspar, a celebrated physiognomist
Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., a celebrated chemist
Eng. Layard, Austen H., tiavoUer and explorer of Nineveh
Fr. Lebrun, Pontius I). E., a poet ....
Swiss. Leclerc, John, an eminent critic
Amer. Ledyard, John, an intrepid and enterprising traveller
Amer. Lee, ChariCs, an officer in the revolution
Amer. Lee, Richard Henry, president of congress .
Amer, Lee, Arthur, M. D., a statesman
Amer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman, and literateur
Fr. Legendre, mathematician ....
Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer
Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, an able and learned philosopher
Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist
Scotch. Leighton, Robert, an able prelate
Eng. Leiand, John, an eminent divine and author
Irish. Leiand, Thomas, an eminent divine and author
Eng. Lempriere, John, a biographer and lexicographer
Dutch. Lennep, David J. von., jurist and poet
Ital. Leo X., pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts
Ger. Leo, Henry, historian . .
Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta — the hero of Thermopylae .
Fr. Lesage, Alain Rene, a novelist and dramatist
18^2
1756
1825
325
1765
1843
1781
1826
1757
.834
1621
1695
1756
1831
1768
1^4
1736
1813
1739
1793
1754
18:38
1732
1807
1745
1829
1770
18:32
1802
1761
1842
1775
1834
1782
1771
1839
183.
1826
1005
1689
1228
1737
1805
1780
ian 1749
1827
1684
176S
1763
1842
1800
1470
1.555
1573
1645
1724
1792
1769
18:30
1741
1801
1743
. 1729
1807
1657
173<>
178S
1782
1732
1794
1740
1782
1797
1^3
1753
18:33
1802
18^10
1646
1716
1752
1842
1613
1684
1691
1766
1772
1785
1824
1774
1475
1521
1799
r. B. c. 491
1668
1747
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
677
NATION
Scotch.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Ger.
(Jer.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Eug.
I'r.
Swed
iluug.
En-r,
Gcv.
Etig.
Ainer.
Amer.
Rom.
Fr.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Leslie, John, mathematician and natural philosopher
Levizac. .It)hn P. B. L. de, a grammarian
Lewis, Maj. Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, <fec,
Lewis, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer
lyichtenbcrg, George C, experimental philosopher
Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist
Lightfoot, John, a learned ilivine and author
Eigne, Charles Joseph, military officer, and author
Limborch, Philip, a theologian and author
Lingard, John, author of ' History of England ' ,
Lingueet, Simon N. IL, political writer, and historian
Linnaeus, Charles Von, the most celebrated of naturalists
Liszt, Francis, performer on piano
Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist, and biographer of Clarendon
Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy
Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier
Livingston, Edward, jinist, diplomatist, anil statesman
Livingston, William, a poet ....
Livius. or liivy, Titus, a celebrated historian
Lobau, Count, marshal of France
Locke, John, an eminent philosopher and metaphysician
Sco'tch. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist — editor of ' Quarterly'
Russ. Lomonozolf, Michael v., a poet and historian
Irish. Londontlerry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, a statesman
Gr. Longiims, Dionysius Cassius, a critic and philosopher
Span. Lope, De Vega Carpio, Felix, a poet and dramatist
Scutch. Loudon. J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agricult.,and a
Fr. Louis, IJaron, eminent surgeon
Eng. Lowth. Robert, an eminent divine and author
Lucan, Marcus AnucEUs, a Latin poet
(Jr. Lucian, a celebrated writer
Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . ' .
Rom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, an eminent poet
Rom. Lucullus. a wealthy warrior
(Jer. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation
Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, a military officer
Gr. Lycurgus, the Spcirtan legislator ....
Scotch. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller
Gr. Lysander, a famous Spartan general
Gr. Lysias, an orator .....
Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, a poet and historian
BORN.
DIKD.
1832
1813
1754
1832
1773
1818
1742
1790
1803
1602
1675
1735
1814
16a3
1712
1736
1794
1707
1778
1811
1801
1812
1781
1770
1828
1764
1836
1723
1790
17
1770
1838
1632
170i
1794
1711
1765
1769
18^
f. B. C.260
1.562
1635
ect. 1783
1S13
1837
1710
1787
37
120
210
B. C. 148 B
c. 191
. B. c. 95
B.C. 115 B
c. 49
1484
1546
1628
1695
B. c. 898
1797
B
0. 395
B. 0. 459
1709
1763
M
Eng. Macaulay, T. Babington, essayist, historian, critic, and statesman .
Scotch. McCrie, Thomas, D. D., biographer of Knox
Eng. McCulloch, John, M.D., geologist, &c.
Sco'tch. MaccuUoch, political economist and statistician
Fr. Mac Donald, marshal of France ....
Amer. Mac Donough, Thomas, commodore, victor on Lake Champlain
Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, a celebrated writer on politics, «fec.
Scotch. Mackenzie, Henry, " the Addison of the North"
Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of Travels
F^ng. Mackintosh, Sir .James, a celebrated literary character
Scotch. Macknight, James, a divine and author
Scotch. Maclaurin, Colin, a mathematician ....
Eng. Mac Lean, L. E. L. (Miss Landon), poet and novelist
Sco'tch. Maclure, William, geologist, &c. ....
Amer. Macomb, Maj. Gen. Alex., military commander
Scotch. Macpherson, James, a miscellaneous writer
Rom. Maecenas, Caius C, the minister of Augustus, and patron of literature
Ani?r. Madison, James, 4th President of United States
Pon. Magellan, Ferdinand, a celebrated navigator
Fr. Magendie, Francois, physiologist ....
Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic
Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, the founder of the religion which bears his name
Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish sultan— conqueror of Constantinople
Ital. Maio, Angelo, discoverer and editor of Latin classics
Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, an historian ....
Jew. Maimonide's, Moses, a celebrated rabbi ....
'*'r. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubignc, queen
1772
1835
1773
1835
1765
1840
1773
1825
1469
1527
1745
1831
1849
1766
1832
1721
1800
1698
1746
1804
1838
1763
1840
1782
1841
1738
1796
B. 0. 9
i7ei
im
1521
i7a3
1793
1842
569
632
1430
1481
1610
1686
1131
1204
1635
1718
678
THE world's progress.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Maittaire, Michael, a bibliographer, &c.
Eng. Malcolm, Sir .John, History of Persia and India
lial. Malibraii, M. F. Madame, vocalist
Eng. Malmesbury, William of, an historian
Eng. Malone, Edward, a dramatic commentator
Ital. Malpighi, Marcellus, a naturalist and anatomist .
Ger. Malte-Brun, Conrad, a poet and geographer
Ger. Malte-Brun, M., geographer ....
Eng. Malthus, T.R., political economist
Pers. Manes, or Manichajus, founder of the Manichjean sect
Ger. Mansfield, Ernest of, a warrior
Eng. Manteil, G, A., geologist ....
Ital. Manutius, Aldus, a celebrated piiinter and author
Ital. Manzoni, author of ' I Promessi Sposi '
Fr. Marat, .John Paul, an infamous revolutionist
Aust. Maria Louisa, Empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma
Span. Mariana, .John, a celebrated historian .
Amer. Marion, Francis, a distinguished ofhcer in the revolution
Rom. Marius, Caius, a famous general and demagogue
Eng. Marlborough, .Joim Churchill, duke of, an abte warrior
Fr. Marmont, marshal of France, and traveller
Fr. Marmontel, John Francis, a celebrated writer
Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller
Eng. Marsden, oriental traveller and historian
Amer. Marsh, .James, metaphysician
Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer .
Fr. Mars, Mademoiselle, actres.s ....
Amer. Marshall, .John, chief justice of U. S., biographer
Rom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, an epigrammatist
Span. Martinez, de la Rosa, don F., statesman and literateur
Ger. Martins, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller
Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor
Ital. Martyr, Peter, a reformer and theologian
Eng. Mason, John, a divine and author
Eng. Mason, William, a divine and poet
Amer. Mason, John M., an eminent divine
Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals .
Fr. Masillon, John Baptist, an eloquent divine
Eng. Massinger, Philip, a dramatist ....
Amer. Mather, Cotton, a divine ....
Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, a divine, dramatist, novelist, and poet
Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist
Fr. Mauperiius, Peter L. M., a geometrician and astronomer
Fr. Maury, John Siffrein, a cardinal and statesman .
Eng. Mawe, Joseph, a mineralogist ....
Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, an able statesman
Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks
Ital. Medici, Lorenzo d', a poet — governor of Florence, and patron of the arts
Ger. Meiners, Christopher, an historian
Ger. Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated reformer
Gr. Menander, a comic poet . ....
Ger. Meninski, Francis M., a learned orientalist
Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, a geographer
Fr. Merimee, Prosper, novelist
Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., a celebrated poet .
Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman and diplomatist
Dutch. Meursius, John, an erudite critic
Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer
Fr. Mezerai, Francis Eudes de, an historian
Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist
Gr. Miaul is, naval commander ....
Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian ....
Ger. Michaelis, John David, a learned orientalist and critic
Fr. Midland, Joseph, historian
Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian ....
Eng. Middleton, Conyers, a divine and an elegant writer
Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian ....
Port. Miguel, Don, rival of Don Carlos for the throne of Portugal .
Scot. Mill, Jas., historian of British India and political economist
Fr. Millevoye, Charles Hubert, a poet
Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, a naturalist, &c .
Eng. Millman, Rev. H. H., poet and historian . • • .
BORN.
DIED.
1668
1747
1808
1836
1143
1741
1812
1628
1694
1775
1826
1834
239
274
1585
1626
1447
1515
1754
1793
1787
1537
16i^
1795
.c. 153
B.C. 86
1650
1722
1723
1799
1847
1755
1836
1794
1758
1839
1755
1835
40
100
1786
1753
1835
1500
1561
1706
1763
1725
1797
1770
1829
1758
1817
1663
1742
1584
1639
1663
1728
1782
1825
1776
1835
1698
1759
1746
1817
1755
1829
1602
1661
1709
1448
1492
1747
1810
1497
1560
c. 342
B. C 29C
1623
1698
1512
1594
1800
1698
1782
1773
1579
1639
1791
1610
1683
18^9
1772
18.35
1839
1717
1791
1839
1798
1683
1750
1796
1775
183G
1782
181G
1759
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
67U
Vr.
Vavi.
K»g.
Or.
Kng.
I'l:
Spnn.
Auicr.
Vav/..
Knsi.
(Jer.
8ar.
Turk.
(ier.
Fr.
Im-.
I'r.
l-r.
Vv.
Anuii-.
!:;^:^-
llal.
Fr.
Im-.
Srotcli.
Irish.
I'r.
Irisli.
Fug.
A]ner.
Arner.
Fug.
Amcr.
Fr.
(Jr.
(Jcr.
Scot.
(Jer.
lOntr.
Swis.s.
(ier.
Fr.
Ital.
Irish.
Amor.
Scotch.
Aiaer.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
cis Xavicr, historian
inr of Cliiirch History
MIS Athenian acneral . . . .
iMier ori{ri!aiii ....
,uci(i, count do, a celebrated cliaracter in the Revolu
Millot, Claude 1' rai
Mills, Charles, hi<t;
INlilner, Joseph, am
Miltiades, an illustr
Milton, .John, the H
Mirabeau, H. G. 11 1
tion, and author
Miranda, Francis, a revolutionary general
Mitchell, Samuel I,., celebrated j')hy.sician and naturalist
Alilchell, Thomas, el;'ssic;il scholar and critic .
Mitlbrd, Mary Russell, novelist and es.s-ayist
Mitfonl, Wiliiain, an historian and philologist .
Mithridates, king of Pon!Us, a warrior
Mitscherlich, I']., chemist ' .
Mohammed JJen Abd At \Vaha]),Shiek, /bunder of the sectofWaliahitei
IMoliauDned A!i, FachaorFirypl ....
Mohs, Frederick, mineraloi,Msi ....
Mole, M. L. conne. statesman .
Moleville, Anihony 1'. de IJerirand. count de. an historian
Moliere. .John lJa)tii-i, a, celel)rated dramatist
Mouse, (iasjjar, an eminent geom{Mrician
^lonk, (ieorge, duke oT Albomarh!, military oflicer .
Monroe, James, a statesman, ."th president of the United States
Moustrelei, FngmuTand de. a chnuiicler
Montagu, Lady Mary Woriley. an eli;i:ant writer
. Mndiael de
Jo!u. La
i, IJayuH
u. Ciiarb
V. Kieiia
v..!.imes
ay 1st
', an a!)Ie writer .
{)id military ollicer
id bio
[dici« of Napoieon
de,
shal
M(»nta
Monte
Monte
Monle
Montii
Mont-onx-rv
Moniholon.V
Monii, \'iucem. a [)
iAIonimorep.ci, Anm
Montpeiisicr. Mada:
Moon;, Sir John, go
.More, se^ir Thomas, chancellor,
iMoore, 'I'liomas, poet, i)iogra[)her, a)id historian
IMor(;, JIaiuiah, poer, essayist, and moralist
Moreau, John \ictor, a celebrated geneial
MorPHU, lady Charles, author ol" novels, travels, &c.
Morier, .James novelist, "Hajji IJaba," cVc.
Morris, Jlobt>rt, a. signer ofthe J)(!claration of Independence, and a financier 1703
eral
uitiiui- of Memoirs, <fec.
Morris, (Jouvorncnir, a distinguished sttitesman
Morrison. Robert, (Miinese travcdler and ]>hilologisi
Morse, Jed.cdiah, a irtiographer a)ul statistical writer
Mortier, m<irshal of France, 'killed l)y Fieschi
Moschus, a bucolic jioet . ' .
Mosheim, John Laurence, an ecclesiastical historian
Motherwell, William, poet ....
Mouradgea, D'Ohason, an Armenian historian .
Mozart,\lohn C. W. T., an eminent composer
iMudic, Roljert, author of various works on Natural History, Sec.
Muller, John Von, a celebrated historian
Mailer! C. ()., historian, archaioloirist, classic
Murat, Joiichim, an intrepid marshal, aiid king of Naples
Muratori, Louis Anthony, an histcu-ian
Murphy, Arthur, a dramatist and translator
Murray, Lindley, a grannnarian
Murray, Alexander, a self-taught linguist .
Murray, William Vans, a statesman
Murray, John (the elder), eminent publisher
Mus^eus, an Atlienian poet ....
BORN.
1726
1788
1744
1608
1749
17rxV
1783
1734
B. c, 123
17'>1
^ f. 1650
1760
1774
1781
175-1
1622
1746
1608
1759
1390
1690
1533
1769
1609
1689
1737
1771
x783
17.53
1493
1627
1761
1480
178f
174.1
1763
1780
1752
1761
1768
B.C. 160
1695
1740
1756
1777
1752
1797
1771
1672
1727
1745
1775
1761
1778
i. c. 1243
DIED
17%-.
18 6
C. ■18'.(
io;i
K'.d
ISb.
In I
IS. '.t
IS17
li,/;t
l-is
1(1. I
l^:;i
1153
1 7(i2
irm
18U9
16SI
1755
1775
1828
1567
1693
1809
153;")
1833
1813
1806
1816
18:14
1827
18:35
1 755
1.S07
1792
1842
1809
1810
1815
1750
1805
l8-.^6
1813
180;i
1843
N
Per.s. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Khan, a warrior and king
Scotch. Napier, John, baron, inventor of logarithms
Fr. Naj)oleon L, (Bonaparte.) . . . .
Feis. Narscs, a warrior, in the service id Justinian 1., the emperor
Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, an able general
1688
1747
1550
1617
1769
1821
567
1567
WZi
680
THE WOULD S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Pers. Nassir Eddyn, a celebrated astronomer
Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of History of the Puritans, <fcc.
Ger. Neander. J. W. Augustus, ecclesia.^^ticai historian
Fr. Necker, James, an'eminent linancier and siate.=:man
Eng. Neele, llenry, a poet and miscellaneous writer .
Eng. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, a celebrated aihiiiral
Rom, Nepos, Cornelius, an historian
Russ. Nesselrode, count Charles R., statesman and dii)!omatist
Ger. Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c.
Eng. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers
l']ng. Newton, Thomas, a learned prelate
Eng. Newton, John, a Calvinistic divine and writer
Fr. Ney, Michael, marshal, " the bravest of the brave"
Eng. Nicholson, William, a writer on natural philosophy and chemistry
Enj. Nicholson, Peter, architect and practical mechanic
Amer, NickJin, P. JI., bookseller and miscellaneous writer
Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., a bookseller and author
Ger, Niebuhr, Garsten, a celebrated traveller
Ger, Niebuhr, B. G., a statesman and historian
Pol. Niemcewicz Julius U., mil. com, and author
Swe, Nilston, Sven, zoologist
Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist ....
Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman
Eng. North, Frederick, lord, prime minister of Geo, III,
Eng. Northcote, James, artist and bi(>gra{»her
Eng. Nott, John, a poet and translator
BORN.
DIED.
1201
1274
1678
1743
,
1789
1850
1732
1804
1798
1828
1758
1805
B.C. 30
1755
1782
1642
1727
1704
1782
1725
1807
1769
1815
y.
1753
1815
1786
1842
1733
1811
1733
1815
1776
1830
1756
1841
1787
,
17&3
1797
1732
7792
1746
LS37
1751
1826
Eng. Oates, Titus, the infamous pretender of the " Popish Plot" .
Eng. Ockley, Simon, an orientalist
Arab. Odenaius, a warrior, the husband of Zenobia
Fr. Odillon-Barrot C. II., statesman
Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist .....
Ger. Olbers, IL W. M., astronomer
Eng. Opie, Mrs, Amelia, writer on morals and education
Gr. Oppian, a poet .....
Dutch, Orange, William of Nassau, prince of, the founder of the Dutch republic
Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chen)ist and toxicologist
Dutch. Origen, one of the fathers of the church
Enir. Orme, Robert, an historian ....
Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, a statesman
Gr. Orpheus, a poet, sometimes styled " the father of poetry"
Port. Osorio, Jerome, a philosopher, historian, and theological writer
Amer. Otis, James, a patriot and statesman
Amer. Otis, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist
Eng. Otway, Thomas, a celebrated dramatist
Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France
Rom. Ovid, Publius Naso, a poet
Eng. Owen, John, an eminent divine
1619
17C;5
1678
1720
267
1791
1758
I8i0
1771
150
1533
1584
1787
185
253
1728
ia)i
1610
168S
1506
L580
1725
1772
1767
184S
1651
1685
1767
43
17
1765
1822
Eng. Paine, Thomas, a political and deistical writer
Ven. Paez, military commander, and president of Venezuela
Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, a famous violinist . ,
Eng. Paley, William, an eminent divine and author ,
Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, a satirist
Pruss, Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist
Paoli, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and general
Can. Papineau, L. J., politician and " patriot"
Rom. Papinian, ^milius, a civil lawyer
Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de IL, an alchemist
Eng. Paris, Matthew, an historian
Scotch, Park, Mungo, a celebrated traveller
Eng. Parkes, Samuel, a clicmist and author
Iial. Parma, Alexander Farnese, duke of, a warrior
Eng. Parry, captain Edward, arctic navigator
Fr. Pascal, Blaize, eminent as a geometrician and writer
Prus3. Paskewitch, Ivan F., prince and military commander
1736
1809
1787
. 1784
18.35
1745
1805
1730
1815
1741
1811
1726
1807
1789
145
212
1493
1541
12.59
1771
18(U
1759
1825
1592
1790
1623
1662
BlOGllArillCAL INDEX.
681
MATIO.V. NAME AND PKOFESSION.
Fr. Pasquier, Etieniio 1)., couiU, chancellor of Fiaiuu;
Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicogra[)her
Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velieius, an historian
Gr. Pausanias, a topographical writer
Port. Pedro, don, claimant of the throne of Portugal .
Eng. Peel, sir Robert, statesman
IJrit. Pelagius, a monk, founder of a sect
Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot
Gr. Pclopidas, an illustrious Theban general
Eng. Penn, William, the founder and legislator of Pennsylvania
Fr. Pcretixe, Hardouin de JJoaumont de, historian .
Gr. Pericles, an able Athenian orator and statesman
Fr Perrier, M. Casimir, a statesman
Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, de la, a navigator
Rom.. Persius Flaccus, Aulus, a satirist
Swiss Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system ofeducation
Fr. Peter the Hermit, the first mover of the Crusades
Russ Peter I., the Great, a warrior and statesman
Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, carl of, a warrior
Petion, Alexander, a mulatto, president of Hayti
Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets
Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre 1)., count de, minister of Charles X. and hi
Rom. Phanlrus, a fabulist .....
Pliihp n., king of Macedon, a warrior
Phillips, sir Richard, bookseller and compiler .
Philoijccmcn, a celebrated general
Phocion, an eminent Athenian
Photius, a learned patriarch of Constantinople
Physic, Philip Syng. M. D. .
Picard, Louis Benedict, a dramatist and novelist
Pichegru, Charles, an eminent general
Pickering, Timothy, a distinguished statesman
Pickering, John, philologist ". . . .
Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets
Pinkerton, John, a fertile and eccentric author •
Pinckney, William, a distinguished orator and diplomatist
Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, a navigator, discovered Brazil .
Piron, Alexis, a poet, dramatist, and wit .
Pisistratus, sovereign of Athens
Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician
Pitt, Christopher, a poet and translator
Pitt, William, a celebrated statesman
Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages
Pizarro Francis, the coiujueror ol" Peru
Plato, an illustrious philosopher — founder of the academic pect
Plautus, a comic poet ....
PLayfair. John, an eminent mathematician and natural philosopher
Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of Natural History
Pliny, the younger, a warriiu- and author .
Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher
Plutarch, a celebrated biographer
Poisson, D. S., marfiematician
Pole, Reginald, a cardinal and statesman .
Polignac. Melchior de, a cardinal and statesman
Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X.
Polk, James K., president of the United States
Polo, Mark, a celebrated Venetian traveller
Polybius, an eminent historian
Pompey, Cneus, a statesman and warrior .
Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, an able general
Pool, Matthew, an able divine and author .
Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet
Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher
Porson, Richard, an eminent hellenist and critic
Porta, John Baptist, a natural philo.sopher
Porter, Anna Maria, novelist ....
Porter, sir Robert Ker, author of travels, &c.
Porter, Jane, novelist ....
Porteus, Beilby, an eminent prelate
Potter, Robert, a divine, poet, and translator
]*ozzo di Borgo, diplomatist
Prideaux, Humphry, a learned divine
29 ->f-
Eng.
Gr.
Amer.
Amer.
Scotcli
Amer.
Span.
Fr.
Gr.
Amer.
Emr.
Eng.
Gr.
Span.
(Jr.
Rom.
Scotch.
Rom.
Rom.
f'gypt.
Gr.
I'^r.
Kng.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Ital.
Gr.
Rom.
Pol.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Itai.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Russ.
Eng.
BORN.
DIED.
J 767
1786
1833
about B. c. 20
f. about 120
1834
1788
1850
354
1789
B
c. 364
1644
1718
1605
1670
B. C. 490 B
. c. 429
1777
18;^2
1741
178S
34
62
mo
1827
1115
1672
1725
1658
1735
1770
1818
1304
1374
rian . 1778
f. 30
B.C. 383 ?
G. 336
8.0.2.53 B
c. 183
B.C. 400 B
c. 318
891
1768
1837
1769
1824
1761
1804
1746
1829
1772
1846
B.C. 522 B
c. 442
1758
1826
1765
1822
f. 1500
1689
1773
B
c. 527
1765
1847
1699
1748
1759
1806
B.C. 650 B.
c. 570
1475
1541
B.C. 430 B.
c. 347
B.C. 227 B
c. 184
n- . 1749
1819
23
79
61
115
203
270
.50
120
1781
1500
1558
1611
1741
1780
1795
1849
12.50
1523
B. C. 205 B.
c. 123
B.C. 106 B.
c. 48
1763
1814
1624
1379
1688
1744
233
304
1759
1808
1540
1610
1832
1780
1S42
1776
1850
1731
1808
1721
1804
1768
1842
1648
1724
682
THE WORLD S PROGllESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Priestley, Joseph, an eminent philosopher and writer
Eng. Prior, Matthew, a poet and statesman .
Gr. Proclus, a Platonic philosopher . .
Gr. Procopius, an historian
Rom. Propertius. Sextus Aurelius. a poet
Egypt Ptolemy, Claudius, an eminent astronomer and geographer
'^ Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of travels, «&c.,
Puffendorf, Samuel, a publicist and liistorian
Pulci, Louis, a poet .....
Putnam, Israel, a distinguished officer in the revolution
Ger.
Ger.
Ital.
Amer.
Gr.
Gr.
Pyrrho, a philosopher, founder of the Skeptic sect
Pythagoras, a celebrated philosopher .
BORN.
DIED.
1733
1804
1664
1721
410
487
410
487
B
c. 52
70
1785
B
c. 12
1632
1694
1432
14.S7
1718
17'J0
f. B
c. 300
B
c. 586
B.
c. 497
Fr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist
Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician
Span. Quevedo De Villegas, Francis, a poet
Fr. Quinault, Philij), a lyrical dramatist .
Fr, Quinet, Edgar, literateur
Span. Quiatana, M. J. poet
Rom. Quiniilian, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated orator
1782
f796
1580
1645
1635
1668
1803
1772
42
122
R
Fr. Racine, John, an eminent dramatis^t
Eng. Radclilt'e, Anne, a celebrated romance writer
Dan. Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary
Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist
Eng. Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, " a man illustrious in arms and literature'
Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist
Scotch. Ramsay, Allan, a poet ....
Amer. Ramsay, David, an historian . . , ,
Amer. Randolph, Peyton, first president of Congress
Amer. Randolph, John, eccentric statesman
Pruss. Rankc, Leopold, historian
Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller •
Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer .
Fr. Raspail, F. V., chej))ist and radical statesman .
Pruss. Rauch, metaphysician ....
Pruss. Raumer, Frederick Von, historian and traveller
Amer. Rawlc, William, jurist ....
Eng. Ray, John, a naturalist and author
Fr. Raynal, William Thomas Francis, an historian and })liilosopher
Eng. Reed, Isaac, a critic and editor
Eng. Kees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia, «fec.
Eng. Reeve, Clara, a novelist ....
Fr. Regnard, John Francis, a comic writer
Scotch. Reid. Thomas, a celebrated metaphysician
Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist .
Eng. Rennie, John, an eminent engineer .
Fr. Retz, John F. P. de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV.
Eng. Ricaut. sir Paul, a traveller and historian
Eng. Richardson, Saniuel, an eminent novelist .
Fr. Richelieu, A. J. du Plessis, cardinal and duke, a statesman
Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, a novelist, &c.
Span. Riego Y Nunez, Raphael de, a patriot
Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, a political reformer
ATner. Rittenliouse, David, a philosopher and astronomer
Ger. Ritter, Aug. IL, history of philosophy
Ger. Ritter, Charles, Geographer ....
Eng, Robertson, William, a celebrated historian
Fr. Robespierre, F. M. .1. I., the •' terrorist" of the Revolution
Fr. Rochcfnicauld, Liancourt, F. A. F , duke de la
Fr. Rochej iquelin, H. de la, a royalist leader
Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore in the American navy
Eng. Rodney, George Brydges, lord, an able admiral
Eng. Rogers, Samuel, poet " .
Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M.. a revolutionist and author .
Fr. RolUn, Charles, a celebrated historian
16-09
1699
1764
1823
1795
17ai
1812
1552
161-8
1776
18:^3
1685
1758
1749
1812
1723
1775
1773
1833
1795
1790
1784
1832
1794
1759
I8:«3
1628
1705
1713
1796
1742
1807
1743
1825
1723
1803
1647
1709
1710
1796
1788
1832
1761
1S2J
1614
1679
1700
1689
1761
1585
1763
1825
1783
1825
1,35^1
1731
1796
1791
1779
1721
1793
1759
1794
1747
1827
1773
1794
1771
im>.
1717
1792
1733
1793
1661
1741
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
683
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Romaine, William, a divine and author
Rom. Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome
Eng. Rooke, sir George, an admiral ....
Rom. Roscius, Quintus, an actor of proverbial talent
Eng. Roscoe, William, a biographer and miscellaneous writer
ital. Rosellini, Ippolito, author of "Monuments of Egypt," &c.
Ger. Rosenmiiller, E.F.C., orientalist ....
Fr, Rosseau, John Baptist, a poet .....
Fr, Rosseau, .Johp James, an eloquent and paradoxical writer
Ital. Rossini, musical composer .....
Ger. Rotteck, fiistorian ......
Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, a poet and dramatist ....
Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, an officer (in foreign service) and
philosopher .......
Ger. Rupert, prince, a warrior .....
Amer. Rush, Benjamin, an eminent physician and author .
Eng. Riissel, lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty
Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of the last), author of "Letters" .
Eng. Russell, William, an historian .....
BORN,
DIBD.
1714
1795
B. c. 716
1650
1708
B.C. 61
1751
1831
1800
1768
1835
1670
1741
1712
1778
1792
1775
1840
1673
1718
1753
1814
1619
1682
1745
1813
1641
i683
1723
1746
1794
Fr. Sacy, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist .... 1758 1838
Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, a poet ...... 1296
Ital. Saint Real, Cffisar Vichard, abbe de, an historian . . 639 1693
Eng. Saint Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral . . . 1734 1823
Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, a celebrated warrior . 1137 1193
Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, a statesman . . . 1550 1612
Rom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, an historian . . . . f. b. C. 86 b. C. 35
Fr. Salmasius, Claudius, a scholar and author . . . 1588 1653
Fr. Salvandy, N. A., comte de, statesman .... 1795
Fr. Salverte', miscellaneous writer ..... 1771 1839
Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist . . . 1804
Amer. Sanderson, .John, «7era/e?fr ..... 1785 1844
Amer. Sands, R. C, poet and literateur .... 1790 1832
Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . . . 1623 1672
Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, a geographer and engineer . . . 1600 1667
Gr, Sappho, a poetess . . . . . f, B. C 606
Ital. Sarpi, Peter, known as father Paul, a patriot and historian . 1552 1623
Fr. Saurin, James, a divine and sermon writer . . , 1677 1730
Ger. Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law . . . 1779
Pruss. Saxe, Maurice, count de, a celebrated general in the French service 1696 1750
Ger. Saxe- Weimar, Bernard, duke of, a warrior . . . 1600 1639
Amer. Say, Thomas, naturalist ..... 1737 1834
Ital. Scaliger, Julius Csesar, a learned critic .... 1484 1558
Scandenberg (real name George Castriot), an Albanian prince and warrior 1404 1467
Ger. Scapula, John, a lexicographer .... 1600
Swe. Scheele, Charles William, an eminent chemist . . . 1742 1786
Uer. Schelling, F. W. J. von, metaphysician .... 1775
I'russ. Schill, Ferdinand Von, an intrepid and patriotic officer . . 1773 1809
Gar. Schiller, John Frederic C, an eminent historian and dramatist . 1759 1805
Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist . . . . 1767 1845
Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian . . 1768 1834
Ger. Schlosser, M. S. F., historian .... 1776
Gor. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, an historian .... 1736 1794
Ger. Scholl, historian ...... 1766 1833
Dutch. Schomberg, Armand Frederick, a warrior . . . 1619 1690
Gor. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 1838
Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, a lexicographer .... 1615 1667
Ger. Schulembourg, John Matthias, a warrior . . . 1661 1747
Ger. Schumacher, II. C, astronomer ..... 1780
Gur. Schiitz, C. G., critic and Z/7(?m/eMr .... 1747
Amer. Schuyler, Philip, an officer in the revolution . . . 1731
Gor. Scioppius, Caspar, a philologist and grammarian . . 1576
Rom. Scipio, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, an able warrior . b.
Rom. Scipio, iEmilianus Publius, an able warrior ... 3,
Scotch. Scott, Michael, a philosopher — supposed magician .
Eng. Scott, Thomas, a divine, and biblical commentator
Scotch. Scott, sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous, and popular wri'
ters of modem timev«t ....
Fr. Scribe, A. E., dramatist ......
1747
1771
1791
1304
1649
o. 189
0. 128
1291
1821
1832
684
THE world's progress.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Fr. Sebastiani, marshal of France, statesman
Eng. Seeker, Thomas, an eminent prelate
Amer. Sedgwick, Theodore, statesman and political economist .
Fr. Segur, count I.ouis de, a diplomatist and writer
Tr. Segur, P. P. de, historian .....
Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annseus, a celebrated philosopher, statesman, and moralist,
Ger. SenneleJder, inventor of lithography
Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, an historian
Rom. Sertorius, Quintus, a warrior
Fr. Sevigne, Mary de, marchioness of, an epistolary writer .
Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, a statesman
bng. Shakspeare, William, the greatest of dramatic poets
Eng. Sharpe, Granville, a philanthropist
Eng, Shaw, George, a naturalist .....
Eng. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, an eminent poet and atheist .
Eng. Shenstone, William, a poet .....
Eng. Sheridan, Thomas, an actor and author
Eng. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley,a dramatist and orator
Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, a prelate ....
Amer. Sherman, Roger, a patriot and self-taught statesman
Eng. Shovel, sir CloudesJey, an able naval otricer
Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses
Eng. Sidmouth, viscount (H. Addingion), statesman
Eng. Sidney, sir Philip, an accomplished officer and author
Eng. Sidney, Algernon, a martyr of liberty and an author
Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, botanist and naturalist
Eng. Simpson, Thomas, a mathematician
Eng. Simi^son, Robert, mathematician . .
Hind. Sing, M. rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashemire
Swiss. Sismondi, .1. C. L., historian .....
Ger. Sleidan, John Philipson, an historian
Eng. Sloane, sir Hans, an eminent naturalist
Eng. Smart,Christopher, a poet and translator
Eng. Smeaton, John, an eminent civil engineer .
Scotch. Smellie, William, a naturalist ....
Eng. Smith, William, a divine and translator
Scotch. Smith, Adam, a celebrated writer on morals and political economy
Eng. Smith, Charlotte, a poetess ....
Eng. Smith, sir James E., botanist and naturalist
Amer. Smith, general Samuel, military commander and statesmim .
Eng. Smith, rev. Sidney, essayist, critic, and moralist
Eng. Smith, sir William Sydney, military commander
Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, United States
Eng. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, a novelist and historian
Pol. Sobieski, John ni., king of Poland, a warrior
Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect
Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers
Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . f.
Gr. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet ....
Fr. Soulie, M. F., novelist .....
Fr. Soult, marshal of France, and statesman
Eng. South, Robert, an eminent divine ....
Amer. Southard, Samuel L., secretary of the navy and senator of U. S., N. J.
Eng. Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic (her sect not yet extinct)
Eng. Southey, Robert, poet, historian, biographer
Eng, Spenser, Edmund, an eminent poet
Eng. Spencer, earl of, statesman .....
Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief justice of New York
Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, a warrior
Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., a celebrated phrenologist (died at Boston)
Fr. Stael, Madame de, a talented writer ....
Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, a diVine and author .
Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, an authoress
Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, a politician and inventor
Eng. Stashope, lady Hester, eccentric traveller .
Amer. Stark, John, a distinguished officer in the revolution
Irish. Steel, sir Richard, an essayist and dramatist
Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, a miscellaneous writec .
Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A., baron, who generously aided the American cause
Scotch. Stewart, Dugald, an eminent philosopher and writer
Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of" Six Nations," " Brandt," and " Redjacket"
Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist ....
BUKN.
1775
lUKU.
1693
1768
1780
18:39
1753
1830
B.C. 2
65
18.3^1
1490
1572
I
.0. 73
1627
1696
1621
16SJ
1564
161 «3
1734
1813
1751
1813
1792
1822
1714
1763
1721
1788
1751
1816
1678
1761
1721
1793
1650
1705
17.55
1831
1757
181-1
1554
15SG
1620
IGS^i
1796
1710
1761
1687
1768
1779
1839
1773
1&42
1506
1556
1660
1752
1722
1770
1721
1792
1740
1795
1711
1787
1723
1790
1749
1806
175*9
1828
1752
1839
1768
1845
1764
1840
1835
1721
1771
1629
1696
1539
1594
C. 470 I
.c. 400
c. 598
c. 495
401
1800
1769
1638
1787
1&42
1750
1814
1775
1843
1553
1598
1758
1835
1765
1848
1571
1630
1776
1832
1693
1750
1680
17o2
1766
1817
1753
1816
1776
1839
1728
1822
1671
1729
1713
1768
1794:
1753
1828
1793
1^4
1766
1835
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
685
KATION.
Amer.
Erig.
Gr.
Erig.
Ger.
Eng.
Scotch. Smart, Gilbert, an historian
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence
Stowell, lord, jurist ....
Strabo, an eminent geographer
Straflbrd, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, a statesman .
Strauss, David F,, author of skeptical '* Life of Christ"
Stuart, .James, an architect and author
Fr. Suchet, Louis Gabriel, a celebrated marshal
Fr. Sue, Eugene, novelist ....
Rom. Suetonius, Tranquitlus Caius, an historian
Rom. Suetonius, Paulinus, a warrior
Dan. Suhm, Peter Frederick, an eminent historian
Suidas, a Greek lexicographer
Fr. Sully, Maximilian de liethune, a warrior and statesman
Eug. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, a poet
Ru.ss. Suvaroir, or Suv/arrow, prince Alexander, a celebrated and cruel
Swc. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect
Irish. Swift, JonaUian. a celebrated satirist
Eng. Sydenham, C. W. Poulctt, lord, governor-general of Canada, &c.
Rom. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, a warrior, and a brutal usurper
BORN
DIED.
1779
1&15
1746
183G
19
1593
1G41
1808
1713
1788
1742
1786
1772
1826
1801
. f. 100
37
172.S
1793
f. about 1000
1560
1641
1515
1547
warrior 1730
180il
1689
1772
1667
1745
1793
1841
B.C. 137
B.C. 7H
T
Rom.
Fr.
Ital.
Ital.
Ger.
EllLr.
Ei.g.
Anicr.
Eng.
Swiss
Ens.
Eng.
Eng.
Ro»ri.
Ger.
(ir.
(ir.
Fr.
Gr.
Rom.
Gr.
Gr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ger.
Eng.
Scotch.
Dan.
Gr.
Rom.
Rom.
Cer.
Ens.
Hind.
Rom.
Eng.
Amer.
tinjr.
Eu^.
En'o.
Irish.
W. Ind.
Pr.
Rom,
Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, an eminent histoi-ian . . ,56 135
Talleyrand, prince, statesman and diplomatist , . 1754 1838
Talma, Francis .J(;soph, one of the greatest of actors . . 1763 1826
Tamerlane, Timur Reg, or Timour, a'celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror 1336 1405
Tasso, Reruardo, a poet— author of Amadis de Gaul . . 1493 1569
Tasso. Toniuato, one of the greatest of Italian poets , . 1544 1595
Tauchnnz, Karl, an eminent publisher at l.eipsic . . . 1836
Taylor, .leremy, a prelate and eloquent writer . . , 1613 1667
Taylor, Thomas, editor of Plato antl other classics . . . 1758 18.35
Taylor, Znchary, niaj.-gen. U. S. army, victor in Mexico, presidentof U. S. 1784 1850
Tel ford, Thomas, civil engineer .... 1757 1834
Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty . . 1354
Temple, sir William, a statesman and writer . . . 162S 1698
Tenterden, Charles Abbott, lord, jurist, chief justice, K. B. . . 1762 1832
Tennyson, Alfred, poet .....
Terence, or Terreniius, a comic writer . . . b. c. 192
TertuUian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the fathers of the church 160
Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .... 1752
Thales, one of the seven sages— founder of the Ionic school of philosophy, b. c 639
Themistocles, an illustrious Athenian
Thenanl, chemist and statesman .....
Theocritus, a pastoral poet . . . . . f, B. c. 285
Theodosius, Flavins, a Roman emperor and warrior . . 346
'i'heophrastus, a ccdebrated philosopher . . . b. c. 371
Thespis, a poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . . b. C. 576
Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian ....
Thierry, Jacques N. A., historian .... 1795
Thiers, Adolphe, hisi irian and statesman . . . 1797
Thiersch, F. W., Gree.c philologist, <kc. .... 1784
Thomson, James, a popular poet .... 1700
Thomson, Dr. Thomas, chemist .....
Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor .... 1771
Thucydides, an historian . . . . b. c. 469
Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, a warrior and emperor . b. c. 34
Tibullus, Aulus Albius, an elegiac poet . . . f. b. c. 30
Tieck, Louis, a poet and novelist .... 1773
Tillotson, John, an eminent prelate .... 1630
Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, India, a warrior . . 1739
Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavins, an emperor, the father of his people 40
Tomline, George, a prelate and writer .... 1760
Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-president of the United States . 1774
Tooke, John Ilorne, a politician and philologist . . . 1736
Tooke, William, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1744
Toj)latly, Augustus M., an eminent divine .... 1740
Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . . 1783
Toussaint rOuverture, negro president of Hayti . . . 1745
Tracy, A. }.. C. D., comte de. Writer on education and philosophy 1754
Trajan, Marcus U. C, an able emperor and warrior . . 62
245
1828
543
B. c. 535 B. c. 470
395
1748
1844
:. c. 400
37
1694
1799
81
1787
1825
1812
1820
1778
1840
1803
1836
117
686
THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Pruss. Trenck, Frederick:, haron de, celebrated for his adventures
Dutch. Tromp, Martin H., a celebrated admiral
Ainer. Trumbull, .loriaihau, a statesman
Amer. Trumbull, John, a poet ; born in Connecticut
Amer. Trumbull, col. John, statesman and historical painter
Eng. Tucker, Abraham, a metaphysical writer
Fr. Turenne, Viscoinit de, an eminent warrior
Fr. Turgot, Anne Robert James, a statesman
Eng. Tyrrell, James, an historian ....
Gr. Tyrtccus. a poet .....
Scotch. Tytler, William, an historical and miscellaneous writer
Scotch. Tytler, Alexander Eraser, an historical and miscellaneous writer
BORN.
DIED
1720
1704
1597
1053
1809
1750
1631
1750
l8-i:i
1705
1774
1011
1075
1727
i:si
1042
171S
171 1
I7!t,^
1747
iSli
Span. Ulloa, don Anthony de, a navigator and author
Irish. Usher, James, a learned divine and historian
1710
1580
Fr. Vaillant, Scbastijuu ;\n eminent botanist
Dutch. Valck(!naer, Louis Gaspar, an able philologist and critic
Fr. Valdo, Peter, Jounder ol'ihe sect ol" Waldenses, f. in 12th century.
Rom. Valerius Miiximus, an historian
Ital. Valla, I^aurence, an eminent philologist
Eng. Vancouver. George, a navigator " .
Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, an advocate of repwblicanistn
Rom. Varro, Marcus T., *' the most learned of the Romans"
(ier. Vater, John Severinus, an eminent philologi-st
Fr. Vauban, S. le P. de, marshal, a milnary engineer
P'r. Vendonie, Louis Jose])h, duke of, a warrior
Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter
Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral ....
Fr. Veriot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, an historian
Rom. Ves})asian, Titus Flavius, a warrior and emperor
Ital. Ve.<5pucius Americu.?, a navigator whose name was unjustly given to the
new world ......
Eng. Victoria Alexandrina, queen of Great Britain
Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, a Latin poet . . . •
Fr. Vi liars, Louis Hector, duke of, an able general
Fr. Villemain, minister of public insiructi(jn, and historian .
Eng. Vince, Samuel, an eminent mathematician
Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of the Roman poets
Fr. Volney, count de, a celebrated writer
Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet de, a celebrated poet, philos., and historian 1094
1009
1722
1715
1785
f. 30
1400
14.J7
1750
1798
1012
lOtVi
B. C. 110 B.
c. 27
1771
18-JO
1033
1707
1054
\7V2
1789
1084
1759
1055
1735
79
the
1451
1510
1819
1490
1500
1053
1731
1791
1821
B.C. 70 B
1. 19
17'57
1820
)rian 1094
1778
\v
Eng. Wakefield, CI. ,?rt, a scholar and critic
Eng. Walker, John, a lexicographer ....
Scotch. Wallace, Williatn, a patriot and hero
Ger. Wallenstein, A. V. E., a celebrated general
Eng. Waller, sir Willi;ini, a |)arliainentary general
Eng. Waller^ Edmtmd, an elegant poet ....
Eng. Walpole, Robert, earl of Oiford, a statesman
Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Orford, an author
Eng. Walsingham, sir Francis, a statesman
Eng. Walton Izaak, an angler and biographer
Eng. Walton, Brian, a iliviue and orientalist
Eng. Warburton, William, an eminent prelate and writer
Amer. Ward, Artcmas, an officer in the revolution .
Eng. Warren, sir John Borlase, a naval officer
Eng. Warton. Joseph, a poet and critic ....
Eng. Warton, Thomas, poet and critic ....
Amer. Washington, George, the father of his country
Amer. Washington, Bnshrod, justice of Supreme Court of the United States
Scotch Watson, Robert, an historian .....
Eng. Watson, Richard, an eminent prelate and writer
Scotch. Watt, James, a celebrated natural philosopher and engineer
17.50
1801
17.32
1807
1270
1305
1583
1034
1597
1008
1003
1087
1070
1745
1718
1797
1530
1.-.9I!
1593
]('•<'
1000
ilUll
1098
1779
1748
181 )•>
I7r>4
IS22
1722
180(1
1728
1790
1732
1799
1759
1829
1730
1780
1737
ISIO
1736
1819
BIOGIIAPHICAL INDEX.
687
arioN
5C0U h.
{<]n<i.
Anicr.
[risli.
[rish.
Kng.
Ger.
iiev.
Enir.
Anier
En<j.
Kti-
En-r.
AnuT
En^.
Kii-.
(Jer.
iMliT.
Aiiier.
Scotch.
iMlil.
Eiiir.
ElliT.
AnuT.
Amor.
J':ii;r.
Atner.
Aiuer.
Aiiuu-.
Amor.
E^L^
En<r.
(J(M-.
Eij^r.
J'liiir.
Eii^.
Amor.
EnL^
Aust.
ElliT.
Eni:.
Eng.
Anier.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Walt, llobert, a. bibliojiraplier ....
VVaif.'', Dr. Isaac, a clivine, poot. and mipcellaneous writer
Weber, Carl Maria Von, an eminent comfjoser
Webster, Noah, author oCEnirlisli Dictionary
WoUosley. niarquis! of, gov. -gen. of India and lord lieutenant of Ireland
Wellini,non, duke of, iiiiliiary commander and statesman .
Wells, Edward, a theologian and scholar .
Werner, Abraham Theophilu.'--, a mineralogist ,
Werner, Fred. L. 7... a poet and dramatist .
Wesley, John, the founder of the Methodist Society
Wesiall, Richard, historical painter
Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomaiist and law connneniator
Whiston, William, a divine, mathematician, and translator .
Whitby, David, a learned divine ....
White, Jlenry Kirke, a poet ....
White, William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church in U
Whitefield, George, foutuler of the Calvinistic Metliodists
Wicklille, or Wiclif, .Tohn, the morning star of the reformation
VVieland.'Chrisiophor M.. an able. and i'ertile writer
Witl'on, . I. H., poet and historian ....
Wilberforce. William, statesman ami philanthropist
Wilde, llichartl Henry, a {)oet and IHenileiir
Wilkes, .Jotm. a celebrated political charticter
Wilkie, sir David, historical painter ....
Wilkiiis, sir Ch:irles, oriental philologist .
Wilkinson, sir J. G., historian of Egypt and archaeologist
Williams, Helen Maria, a miscclliineous writer
Williamson, Hueli, pliysician and historian ol' North Carolina
Wilson, Alexander^ a celebrated naturalist
WinJham, William, a statesman . , . .
Wirt, William, atiorney-general of the United States, and biographer
Wistiir, Casjiar, an eminent physician and anatomist
Witherspoon. John, an able divliK- and patriot
Wolcott, Oliver, ;i patriot— signer of tiie Declaration of Independence
Wolcott, Jolu), known as Peter Pindar, a poet
Wolfe, Jatnes, a distinguished general
Wolf!", John Christian, a philosopher and matliematician
Wollaston. William Hyde, an experimental philosopher
Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, a celebrated statesman .
Wordsworth, William, poet .....
Worth, W. J. major-general. United States army
Wren, sir Christopher, a celel)rated architect
Wurmser, I). S., tield-marslial, Austrian army
Wyatt, sir Thomas, poet and statesman
Wycheriey, William, liramatic poet
Wykeham, M., bisliop of Winchester, statesman and philanthropist
Wythe, George, an eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot
BORN.
DIED.
1774
1819
ir)74
1748
17SG
1826
1758
1843
1 1760
1812
J769
16g:?
1727
175()
1817
17US
1823
1703
1791
1765
18i7
17S5
1818
1667
1752
16:«
1726
1785
18(.)f.
S. 1717
1,S!6
1714
1770
13-^4
13S1
1733
1813
m2
1836
1750
1830
i789
1717
1817
1/1/
1785
1 7 97
1841
1836
1762
1827
1735
1819
1766
1813
1750
1810
1772
1835
1761
1818
1722
1794
1727
1797
1738
1818
1726
17.59
1679
1754
1766
1828
1471
1530
1770
1850
171H
1849
1632
1723
1717
1797
1503
1540
1640
1715
1324
1401
1806
Tr. Xavier, St. Francis, " Apostle to the Indies" . . , 1506 1552
Gr. Xenocrate.^, a philosopher . . . , . b c. 406 b. c. 314
Gr. Xenophenes, a philosopher — founder of the Elealics . . f.
Gr. Xenophon, a celebratetl philoso{)her, historian, and general . b. c. 446 B.C. 360
Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, an eminent statesman . . . 1457 1517
Kng. Young, Edward, a poet and miscellaneous writer
Kng, Young, Arthur, an agricultural writer
Kng. Young, Thomas, a physician and philosopher
Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, a leader in the modern Greek revolution
Span Yriarle, don Thomas de, an eminent poet . . . ,
1681
1765
1741
1820
1774
1829
1792
1828
1750
1790
Ital.
Gr.
Gr.
Zaccaria, Francis A., a voluminous writer
Zeno, of Elea, a i)hilosopher .
Zeno, the foimdcr of the sect of Stoics
1714 1795
B. c. 463
B. c. 362 B. c. 264
688
Tllb: WORLD'S PROCiRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, an eiiiineni writer .... 1668
Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, a conciueror, and patroness ofthe arts
Swiss. Zimnierinan, Jutm George, a iniscellaneous writer . . . 1728
Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . . . 1743
Ger. Zinzendorf, Sf. L., count, chief of the Moravians . . . 1700
Swiss. ZolikoCer, G. J., theologian ..... 1730
Zoroaster, a famous Eastern philosopher .
Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, an enlightened reformer . . 1484
DIED.
1750
300
1795
1815
1760
1531
PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, ETC.
THE MOST EMINENT IN THEIR DEPARTMENTS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSIO:
NT.
born.
DIED.
Gr.
Agatliarcus, the inventor of perspective scenei
7
in theatres ....
Painter •
b. c
. 480
Gr.
Ageldas ....
Sculptor • f. B
. c. 5th cent
Gr.
Agesander (sculptor of " Laocoon and his Chil-
dren ") -
Sculptor - - E
1. c. 5th cent
Ital.
Albano, Francis ("the painter of the Graces'
')Pai?iter
1578
* 1660
Ital.
Alberti, Leo Haptist, a Florentine
Pa. Sc. 4" Archit.
1400
1490
Ital.
Albertinelli, Mario'to -
Painter
1520
Gr.
Alcamenes (pupil of Phidias)
Sculptor f. B.
C.450
Jjfcfotch,
, Allan. Sir William - - - -
Painter -
1781
1850
Amer.
Allston, Washington
Poet Sf ITistor. Painter
1779
18i:{
Ital.
Angelo, iMichael (Ihionarotti), a pre-eminent
Pa. Sc. 6r Architect
1474
156:3
Ital.
Angeio, Michael (('aiavngsiio) -
Painter
l.%9
1609
Gr.
Ape lies, the most celebiated of ancient painters
^ Painter - f b.
c. 330
Gr.
Apollodoriis, an Athenian -
Painter • f. b.
c. 408
Ital.
Appiani, of Milan
Painter
1751
1817
Gv.
A ristides, of Thebes
Painter - f. b.
c. 240
Fr.
Audran, Gerard, a celebrated
Hislor. Engraver
1640
1703
Ital.
Haccio, Delia Porta (known as San Marco)
Painter
1469
1517
Eng.
IJacon, .lohn - - - .
Sculptor -
1740
1799
Flem.
IJalen, Henry Van - - - -
Painter
1560
16.32
Ital.
Bandinelli, IJaccio • -
Sculptor -
1487
1559
Eng.
Banks, Thomas ....
Sculptor
1745
1805
Irish.
Harry. James ....
Painter
1741
1805
Ital.
Bartolini ....
Engraver
Ital.
Bartolomeo, Fra, di St. Marco -
Painter
1469
1517
Iial.
Batoni, Pompey - - - -
Painter
1708
1787
Eng.
Beechy, Sir Wm.
Landscape Painter •
1753
1893
Ital'.
Bella, Stepha.\o Delia, a Florentine
Engraver
1610
1681
Flem.
Berchem, Nicolas
Engraver
Paniter
1624
1689
Do.
Bird, Edward
1772
1819
Eng.
Blake, William, ....
Painter Sf Engraver
1757
1826
Dutch.
Both, .John and Andrew
Painters
1610 1650 & 56
Fr.
Bourdon, Sebastian
Painter 4" Engraver
1616
1671
Swiss.
Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London)
Painter
1756
1811
Eng.
Boydell, .John (a printseller, and lord mayor (
3f
London) - - -
Ens-raver
1719
1801
Ital.
Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L. (1st of St. Peter's
Church) ....
Architect
1444
1514
Dutch
Brentel, Francis
Painter •
f. 1635
Dutch.
Brill, Maithew ....
Painter
1550
1581
Flem.
Bruges, .John of, or .John Van Eyck
Painter
1370
1441
Ital.
Buonarotti, see Angelo.
Eng
Burnett, .James - ...
Landscape Painter
1788
1816
Itai.
Cagliari, Paul (known as Paul Veronese), a cele-
brated .....
Painter -
1532
1588
Ital
Cagliari, Benedict, Carletto, and Gabriel, bro-
thers and sons of Paul.
Eng.
Calcott, Sir A. W. -
Landscape Painter
1779
1844
Gr.
CallimachMs ....
Sculptor «5* Architect f. b.
c. 540
Ital.
Cambiaso. Lucus, a Genoese
Painter
1527
1585
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
689
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
ital. Canaletto, Anthony, a Venetian - - Landscape Painter
Ital. Canova, Antonio, . . . Sculptor
Ital. Caravaggio, see Angelo.
Ital. Caracci Lodovico ' - - . Painter
Ital. . Agostino - . . Painter
Ital. Annibale - - . Painter
Ital. Carpi, IJgo da, discoverer of the art of printin?
in Chiaro-oscuro— with three plates— to imi^
tate drawings - - . .
Casas, Louis Francis -
Castilio Y Saavedra, Anthony
Cavendone, James
Cellini, IJenvenuto, a Florentine
Champagne, Philip de •
Chares - . .
Cosway, Richard
Chantry, sir Francis
Chaudet, Anthony Denis
Cimabue, Giovanni, a Florentine
Claude Gele -called Claude Lorraine
Cleomenes, an Athenian (The Mctlicean Venus) Sculpts
Clevenger - - . . Sculptor
Co e, Thomas - . . La7id. <5' Hist. Painter
Collins, Wilham - - . - Land. ^ Fam. Life Pa.
Constable, John - - . Painter
Cooper, Samuel .... Miniature Painter ■
Co|)ley, John Singleton (born in Boston) - Painter
Corregio, Ant. (founder of the Lombard school) Painter
Cortona, Pietro da, a Tuscan - - Painter
Courtois, James (known as 11 Bor^ofrnone) Painter
Fr. Couston Nicholas (also his brother William) Sculptor
Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G., - - ^ •
Dutch. Cuyp, Albert (son of above)
Dutch. " ^ . .
Eug.
r.er.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ger.
Gr.
Ital.
Ital.
Ituj.
Dutch.
Fr.
Span.
lial.
Ital.
Flem.
Gr.
Fair.
Eng.
Fr.
Ital.
Ital.
Gr.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Ens.
Eng.
Amer.
Ital.
Ital.
I<r.
Fr
Ger.
Eng.
En-.
Gr/
Dutch.
fai<r.
Swiss.
\'AV'
haf
En-.
llal
Ital.
Ital.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ital.
llal.
Cuyp, Benjamin
Daniel, Thomas
Dannecker, John Henry— (Adriadne, &c.)
David, James Louis, a celebrated
David (Founder of recent French school)
Delaroche, Paul
Denner, Balthaser
Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexan-
dria, «fec.) ....
Dolci, Carlo ....
Domenichino (excelled in expression)
Donatello, or Donato, a Florentine
Douw, Gerard ....
Dubulfe ....
Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonso
Duulap, William
Durer, Albert (and author)
Eberhardt ....
Eginton, Francis (restorer of the art of paint-
ing on glass) . - . -
Etty, William
En pom pus (lounder of school at Sicyon)
Eyck, John Van (saiil to have invented paint-
ing in oil) ....
Flaxman, John
Fuseli, Henry (resided in England) -
Gainsborimg'h, Thomas
Ghiberti, Laurence, a Florentine
Gibson ....
Giordani, Luke (The Proteus of painting)
Giorgione, Barbarelli -
Giotto (one of the earliest modern) -
Giraldon, Francis
Girodet — Trioson. Aime Louis
Go\igon.J()hn ('-The French Phidias") .
Guercino (re;i.I name Francis Harbieri)
Guido Kcid (excelled in t)eauiv o(' expression
and grace) • - ' -
BORN.
1697
1757
1555
1588
1560
About 1700
1846
Painter ^ Architect - 1756
Painter - - 1603
Fresco Painter • 1577
Engraver ^ Sculj^tor 1500
Painter - - 1604
Painter f. B.C. 300
Painter - 1740
Sculptor - . 1 781
Painter - 1763
Painter • - 1240
Painter • 1600
f. B. c. 180
1802
1788
1776
1689
1737
1493
1596
1621
1658
1.568
16(H5
1650
Landscape Sf Cattle Pa.
Landscape Sf Cattle Pa.
Historical Painter -
Landscape Pairiter
Sculptor
Painter
Sculptor
Historical Painter
Portrait Painter
17.58
1750
1780
1685
Architect
Scripture Painter
Painter
Sculptor
Familiar Life Painter
Historical Painter
Painter
Historical Painter -
Pa. Eng. Sc. ^ Arch.
Sculptor
Painter
Historical Painter
Painter
Painter
Sculptor
Painter
Landscape Painter
Sculptor
Sculptor
Painter
Painter
Painter, Sculp, df Arch,
Sculptor
Painter
Sculptor
Painter
• f. B. c. 330
1616
1581
1613
176G
1471
1737
1789
1.370
1755
1741
17^
1378
1629
1477
1276
1630
1767
1590
DIED.
1718
1822
1619
1601
1609
1827
1667
1606
1570
1674
1826
1841
1810
1300
1682
18-44
1818
1837
1776
1815
1534
1669
1673
1731
1649
1667
1840
1841
1825
1641
1466
1674
1805
'&19
1441
1826
182.-
17SS
1 l.^.r.
i;n.
l.Mi
i;{;;ii
171.".
1824
I. -.72
K>t>6
M2
690
THE world's progress.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Harlow, George Henry - - - -
Eng. Haydon, R. B. - - • -
Eng. Heath, Charles -
Eiig. Hilton, William
rieni. Hobbema, Mynilerhout
Eng. Hogarth, William
Swiss. Holbein, Hans
(J.M-. Hollar, Wenceslaus (executed 2400 plates) Eiigr<
V\M\\. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda dal Notte) Painter
Dutch.
(Jer.
I''r.
Fr
Eng.
Gr.
Amer.
Flem.
lial.
Gor.
,tHl.
Ger.
Fr.
Swiss.
Sp'-in-
Eng.
Eng.
l']n£r.
Eng.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Eng.
Fr.
Ital. ■
Span.
(Jr.
Afiier.
Ital.
Swiss.
(Jr.
I ;.l.
I);.lcli
I'r.
i-al.
(Jr.
A nier.
Fr.
Fr.
6r
Painter
Portrait (^ Hist. Painter 1769
Painter
1) Painter
Painter
Painter 4* Engraver
Painter
Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits)
Houdon (executed statue of Franklin)
Ilouel, John (Picturesque Travels, <fcc.)
Inman, Henry
Huysuni, John Van (flowers and fruit)
Jones, Inigo - - - -
Jordaens, Jacob
Julio, Romano
Kaurtman, M. A. Angelica C. (in England)
Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England)
Landseer, Edwin -
I.airesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition)
Landon, ('. P. (more eminent as an author o
works on the fine arts) -
Lawrence, sir Thomas
Lcbrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV )
Lely, sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England
Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael)
Leyden, Lucas, Dammesz -
Liverseege, Henry
Lysippus(made 600 statues)
Malbone. Edward G. -
Matsys. (iuintin -
Masaccio . . . -
Mayer - -
Mazzuolo, Francis
Mengs, Aiuhony R. (the Raphael of Germany
Mignard, Peter
Mind, Gottfried
Moreland, George
Murillo, Bartholomew S.
Newton, Gilbert Stuart
NoUekins, Joseph
Northcote, James -
Opie, John - . . -
Ostade. Adrian Van (interiors)
Ostade, L^aac (winter scents)
Owen, William -
Pajou, Augustin
Palladio, Andrew
Palomino de Castro Y Vclasco, A. A.
Parrhasins, of Ephesus
Peale, Charlej W. -
Perraulr, Claudius (designed the Front of tl'
Louvre) ... - Architect
Perucrino, Peter (the master of Raphael) - Painter
Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) - Painter
Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) Sculptor
Picait, Bernard - - - Engraver
Pigalle, John Baptiste - - - Sculptor
Piles, Ros:er de (an author and painter) - Painter
Piranesi, John Baptiste (16 vols, folio) - Engraver
Polvcletus (statue of Juno at Argos) - Sculptor
Poidenone, Renillo da - - - Painter
Potter. Paul (unequalled in animal painting) Pointer
Poussin, Nicholas (e.xcelled in landsc. painting) Painter
Poussin, Gas-par (Dughet) landscape • Painter
Praxiteles .... Sculptor
Pratt. Matthew • - - Pai7iter
Prudhon. of Cluny - - - Painter
Puget, Peter - * • - - Sculo. Pa. Sc Arch.
Pythagoras .... Sculptor
Painter
Historical Painter
Engraver
Historical Painter
Landscape Painter
Painter
Portrait 6f Historical Pa. 1493
BOUN.
1787
1786
1786
1611
1697
Engraver -
Sculptor
Painter <5* Engraver
Portrait ^ Landsc. Pa.
Painter
Architect
Painter
Painter Sc Architect •
Poetical Painter •
Painter
Animal 8f Historical Pa.
Painter Sf Engraver
1607
1592
1698
1746
1736
1801
1682
1572
1595
1492
1747
1648
1640
1619
1618
1617
1494
1803
f. B. c. 324
Sculptor • f. B. c. 324
Miniature Painter - 1777
Painter - 1460
Painter ■ - 1402
Sculptor
Painter ■ • 1503
Painter - 1729
Painter - ■ 1610
Painter - 1768
Painter ■ - 1764
Painter - 1613
Historical Painter 1785
Sculptor ■ 1737
Painter - - 1746
Painter • 1761
Familiar Life Painter 1610
Painter • ■ 1617
Painter • 1769
Sculptor ' - 1730
Architect ■ 1518
Painter - - 1653
Painter • f. b. c. 420
Histor. ^ Portrait Pa. 174 1 1827
1613 loss
1446 1524
1607 1691
B.C. 498 B.C. '131
1663 17.^"
1714 17S.''
. 1635 1709
1707 I77H
B. c. 430
1584
1625 Hir^l
15&4 166r)
1613 1675
. f. B. C. 350
. 1734 1B05
1760 1823
1622 16IM
vfMflCAL JMDKX.
{)9 1
/TATION.
llill.
lial.
V.UCr.
Vi:
En I?.
Kn?.
r'lein.
Scotch.
Dutch.
I) iich.
lMi£r.
NAMB AND PROFESSION.
Ryphiifil (real n;Hne Sanzio) a pre-eminent Pabitcr
Rcinbnuult, Paul - - - Painter
Reynolds, sir Jo.shua - - - Painter
Rolaiul, Philip L. (Homer in the Louvre) Sculptor
Ronniey, George - - - - Painter
Rosa, Sal vator (scenes of gloom) - Painter
Rowlandson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Painter ^ Eng
Rubens, Peter Paul, a celebrated
Runciman, Alexander
Riiysdael, Jacob
Ruystlael, Solomon
Rysbrach', John Michael (works in Westmin-
ster Abbey) ....
!f;ii. Saiunicheli, Michael
l!;il. Sarfo, Andrea del— see Vaniicchi
lial. Scamozzi, Vincent
GtM-. Schadow Rudolf
Dutch. Schalkcn, Godfrey (candlelight scenes)
Or. Scopas ....
V.wj:. Sharp, William - - . .
Driir. Shervvin, John Keyse -
Aiiicr. Smybert, John - - . .
V\i'm. Snyders, Francis (landscape and animal)
Painter
Painter
Landscape Painter
Painter
Sculptor
Architect
Architect
Sculptor
Painter
Sculptor
Engraver
Engraver
Painter
Painter
Soulilot. J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect
Dutch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan (llower)
Scotch.
Ku
Amor.
FIcm.
Fletn.
Dai:.
(Jr.
Iial.
Ital.
Amor.
Kiii:.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Painter
Engraver
Painter
Architect
Portrait Painter
Painter
Strange. Robert
Strutt, Josef)h (an author and painter)
Stuart, .Tames (author of the " Antiquities of
Athens") ....
Stuart, Gilbert (pupil of Benjamin West)
Teniers, David, the elder (puiiil of Rubens)
Teniers, David, the younger (i)upil of Rubens) Painter
Tliorwaklsen Albert - - - Sculptor
Timanthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) Painter
Tintoretto (a Venetian— pupil of Titian) - Painter
Titian (tlie greatest painter of Venetian school) Painter
Trumbull, .tohn - - - . Historical Painter
Vanbriigh, sir Jn. (Blenheim and (Castle Ifovvard)y1/Y7z//t'C/
V^'l^dervel(le. William (marine and battle) - Painter
Vandervelde, the younger - Painter
Dutch. Vandervelde, Adrian
Landscape Paiyiter
Historical Painter
Portrait Painter
Painter
Architect
Architect Sf Painter
Engraver -
Painter
Painter
Historical Painter
Landscape Painter
Dutch. Vanderwerf, Adrian
Flem. Vandyke, sir Anthony (the greatest of portrait
painters) ....
Iial. Vannucchi. or Andrea del Sarto -
Ital. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan
lial. Vasari, George (a biographer of artists) -
Sic. Vasi, Joseph, a def^i<zner and -
Span. Velasfjuez, Jatnes R. ele Sylvia Y
Fr. Vernel, Joseph
I'l"- Vernet, Horace
Am. Ver Bryck C. -
Iial. Vcrrociiio, Andrew (inventor of the method of
taking the feattn-es in a plaster mould) - Sculptor
Ital. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari)
Vavz. Vertue, George (500 plates) - - Engraver
It d. Visnola, Jame.s (Gaprarola palace and St. Pcter's)ylrc7«7('c;
•j^'d. Viiici, Leonardo da - - - Painter
^'1' Vitruviua (teiTip. Augustus) - - - Architect
•'■d. Volpato. John .... Engraver
'"'■. Voijei, Simon, foimder ofFr. sch. (temp. Chan. \.) Painter
'/• Wailly, Charles de - • - Architect
'■'!•-' Warren, Charles (perfecter of engraving on steel) Engraver
Aiui'i- West. Benjainin
^'•"i'-h. Wilkie. David
'■:n- Wilson, Richard
'•'■"' Woollet, William
l>n!rl). Wonvermans, Philip -
Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &.c.)
Wvatt. James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, <tc.)
Zablia. Nicholas
Painter
Familiar Life Painter
Landscape Painter
Engraver •
Painter
Architect
Architect
Architect
BORN.
1483
1606
1723
1746
1734
1614
1756
1577
1736
1636
1616
1694
1484
1550
1786
1643
c. 460
1740
17-28
1579
1714
1746
1721
1749
1713
1756
1582
1610
1772
c. 420
1512
N8()
1756
1672
1610
1633
1639
1654
1598
1488
1700
1512
1710
1599
1714
1813
1422
1684
1507
1452
. c. 30
1733
1582
1729
1738
1785
1713
17.35
16':>0
1632
1743
1674
DIED.
1520
1647
1792
1816
1802
1673
1827
1640
17a5
1684
1670
1770
1559
1616
1822
1706
c. 353
1824
1790
1751
1657
1781
1822
1722
1802
1788
1828
1649
1694
1844
1594
1579
IM
1726
1693
1707
1672
1718
1641
1530
1773
1574
1782
, 1660
1789
18^14
1756
1573
I5I9
1.S02
1649
179S
1823
1820
1841
1782
1785
ir,68
1723
1813
1750
692 THE world's progress.
NATION NAME AND PROFESSION.
Gr. Zeuxis, a celebrated ancient - - Painter - i
Ger. Zincke .... Enamel Portrait Pa.
Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo - - Painter
Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo - Paiiiter -
Ital Zuccarelli - - • Painter -
BORN.
DIED.
C3. 490 B
c. 400
1684
1767
1529
1566
1539
1610
1710
1788
ADDENDA
TO
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
(December, 1851.)
[In addition to a brief record of the more important occurrences and statistics of the years 1850
and 1851, the following pages contain some corrections of •errors in the previous editions. Some
flther inaccuracies have been corrected in the body of the work. In selecting the names for the
Biographical Index, it was difficult to draw the line. While it was desirable to include those
names which the general reader would be likely to look for, there was still no space for all those
to be found in a biographical dictionary : in endeavoring to condense the list, however, many
names were omitted (some from mere oversight) which, on a further collation, are now added to
this appendix.
It will be obvious, hov/ever, that whatever care and diligence may be bestowed upon a volume
of this kind, entire perfection and completeness cannot reasonably be expected ; and, in acknow-
ledging the gratifying reception so promptly given to the book, the editor begs to say, that he will
be greatly obliged by any essential additions or corrections which may be contributed for future
editions.]
ADMINISTRATIONS or the United States— (p. 152) On the death of Pre-
sident Taylor, July 9, 1850. #
Millard Fillmore, of New- York (Vice-President) became President, He appointed, aooi
after, the following Cabinet, viz. :
Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, Secretary of State.
Thomas Corwin, Ohio, Secretary of Treas.
Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, Secretary of War.
William A. Graham, North Carolina, Sec. of the Navy.
A. H. II. Stev/ait, Virginia, Sec, of Interior.
Nathan K. Hali, New-York, Post Master Gen.
John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney General.
William R. King, Alabama, was elected Pres't of the Senate,
and became acting Vice Pres't of U. S.
Howell Cobb, Georgia (^continued in office), ^ Soeakers of H. Repi.
Linn Boyd, Kentucky, Dec. 18oI. S ^
Omissions on page 152.. " WorlcPs Progress^
Hugh S. Leffare, S.Carolina, May 9, efierf June 20, 1843, ^ cprs ofStat*
John C. Calhoun, S. Carolina, March 6, 1844, to Mar. 1, 1845, S
Geo. M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. ofTreas.
Wm. Wilkins, Pennsylvania. Feb. 15, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. of War.
Thos. W. Gilmer, Feb. 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1S44, } S-^_ of v--v
John y. Mason, Virginia, Marcb U, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845, \ •^^ ^' ^^^''
2 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD^S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [aME
AFRICA. The Britisli forces defeated with considerable loss in their engage-
ment with the CafiVes of South Africa. Dec. 29, 1850. The Caffres attack
Fort White. Cape of Good Hope, Jan. 3, 1851, but are repulsed, with loss
of 20 killed. Jan. 7— the Caffres, in their attack on Fort Beaufort, are
completely routed, and their chief Hermanns and his son killed. 3000
Caffres attack the colonists near Fort Hare, Jan. 23. but are driven back
with loss of 100 killed. Feb. 23d— Col. Somerset burns Fort Hamilton,
which had been abandoned by the British, killing 90 Caffres. and taking
230 prisoners. J. G. Richardson, the African traveller, dies at Ungiirta, six
days distance from Kouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4, 1851.
ANGLO-SAXONS. It may be assumed, on the most moderate data, that up-
wards of 51,000 000 of the human race now speak the language of Shaks-
peare. Bacon, and Newton.
ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Dispatches received by British Government. Sept.,
1851, confirming the statement that traces of Sir J. Franklin's y)arty had
been discovered, showing that they had passed their first winter. 1815-6. in
the bay between Beechey Island and Cape Riley, and that their departure
had been sudden. Tiie vessels. Advance and Rescue, nobly dis[)atched by
Mr. Grinnell in aid of this expedition in May, 1850. were frequently in com-
munication with the British party, and returned to New- York Oct., 1851.
ADVERTISEMENTS. Tlie number of advertisements in tlie 159 London
papers, in 1850, was 891 650, the duty on which at Is. 6d. each, amounted to
i:66 873 15s. In the 222 provincial papers, 875 631 advertisements ; in 102
Irish papers, 236,128 ; and in the Scottish papers, 219,141. The Times sup-
plement, Jan. 23, 1813, contained 1706 advertisements, one page of which,
embracing six columns, yielded £108.
AGRICULTURE, U. S., 1851. The following are the number of farms in
several states, as reported in the last census : —
New-York
174,2.34
Maryland -
- 21,950
Pennsylvania
- - 127,73.3
New Jersey -
24,5U4
Ohio
146,821
Dej.iware -
- 6:22.5
Indiana
- 1(U.973
Michigan
34.699
Vir:iinia -
76,791
Wisconsin
- 22.062
Illinois-
- 71,062
Iowa
15,500
Kentucky-
77;290
ALABAMA. Nov., 1851. The governor, in his message, recommends a dis-
criminating tax on all articles from those states that continue slave agi-
tation. The population of this state. 1850, according to census returns,
was:— llpiite. 426 515; Free colored, 2.250. Total free, 428.765; Slaves,
342,894. Fed. Rep. Pop. 634.501.
ALFRED THE GREAT. A medal commemorative of the 1000th anniversary
of this monarch was struck in 1849, with the legend, " Alt>ed and his chil-
dren, the British Empire, United States and Anglo-Saxons every where !"
ALMANACS. The almanac was canonized as »S'^. Ahnachius, in the Roman
Calendar. — H. Wharton's Life of Lmjaia, 1688. Almanacs first printed at
Constantinople, Sept., 1806. Regiomantus supposed to be indebted for his
formula, 1474, to the Persian almanacs. — Eticij. Mr-lroj). The popular al-
manac in Shakspeare's time was that of Leonard Digges. — C KnifrJit. In
1851, Dr. McGowan, laboring in China for the Missionary Union, prepared
a philosophical almanac in the language of that country, exhibiting to the
Chinese the realities of science, aiid particularly detailing the principles of
***• i Magnetic Telegraph.— A^ Y. Express. See WorUrs Progress, p. 162.
itlERlCAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used in this country exhib-
ited a snake with 13 rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white, by
AST] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 3
some supposed in compliment to France, but more recently by others as re-
presenting those in tlie armorial bearings of Gen. Washington. A descrip-
tion of this flag is given in a London paper, published in 1776. On the 14th
June, in the succeeding year, the American Congress " Resolved, that the
flag of the 13 United States bo 13 stripes, alternate red and white; that the
union be 13 stars, white, on a blue field — representing ' a new constellation.' "
Anew '-star-spangled banner" made its appearance on the river Thames
(London). October, 1851, showing five stars emblematical of the British
colonies New South Wales, Victoria (Hong Kong), South Australia, Van
Dieman's Land, and Wt!st Australia.
AMERICAN LITERATURE. The first English work written in America was
Sandy's Translation of the Metamorphoses ; Dr. W. Vaughan's poem of the
Golden Fleece was written about the same time. Jocelyn, who wrote the
Neic England Rarities, and his Two Voyages, brought over a version of part
of the Psalms, by Quarles, which, if approved by th(? Minister at Boston,
was to have succeeded Sternhold and lIopl:ins in the N(nv World. The first
worii printed was the " Freeman's Oath,'' Camhridge, 1689; the second an
Almanac, calculated for \ew England, by Pierce, a mariner; and the third
" The Psalms, newly turned into 7?ietrc." — Dr. Hubnes's American Annals.
AMUSEMENTS, Public, New York, April, 1851.
Nine Theatres, with audiences niijhtly of - - - - 15,900
Four Minstrel Concerts ""..... 2,300
Three Panoramas, u i; .... GtX)
Nightly audiences at Public Amusements in New-York .
The average nightly receipts, exclusive of Astor Opera House (not
obtained), amounted to ^5800.
AMUSEMENTS, London. Tlie amount annually expended in London for
sight-seeing, theatres, &c., is estimated at about four millions sterling. — Art
Ji urnal.
ARMY, (Standing), U. S. A. June. 1850, the regular army of the United States,
including 882 commissioned officers, consisted of 10.320 men : distributed,
eastern division, in the Atlantic States ; western, west of the Alieghanies ;
and the Pacific division in Oregon and California. Expenses of the war
department year ending June 30, 1819, partially including those of the
Mexican war, amounted to S17;290,936.
ARMIES. EuROPHAN. 1851. Great Britain, 114,451, infantry and cavalry effect-
ive ; France. 408,000 (exclusive of National Guards, who number over
2 000,000); Russia. 674,000; Austria, 405,000; Prussia, 121,000, which last
with Austria, has an effective organization of the Landwehr, similar to the Na-
tional Guards of France.
ARMORIES, U, S. There are five armories in the United States, viz. : Harper's
Ferry, Virginia; Springfield, Massachusetts; Alleghany, Pennsylvania;
Washington, District of Columbia ; and Watervliet, New- York. For tlie fiscal
year ending January 30, 1850, the manufactory of weapons of war is reported
as 28,115 percussion muskets; 2 000 percussion cavalry musketoons ; 2,676
percussion rifies; 110,487 flint lock muskets altered to percussion.
ASTRONOMY. The planet Uranus, was discovered through observation
of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn ; and similar movements in
Uranus led M. Leverrier to determine by calculation the existence of a new
planet. This remarkable theoretic conclusion was verified on the night of
Sept. 23d, 1846, by M. Galle. at Berlin, the new planet {Neptune) being found
in the position and with the diameter announced by Leverrier , one of the
noblest achievements of modern times. M. Arago calculates the distance of
4 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 1850-51, [BAN
this planet from the sun at 1.250,000,000 leagues, or about 3,125,000,000
miles ! Periodic time nearly 166 years. Its volume is about two hundred
and thirty times that of the earth. Thus, during the year 1846, the bounds
of our solar system have been nearly doubled. The discovery of Neptune
marks, in a signal manner, the maturity of astronomical science. The
Parfhcnopc, a new planet discovered by M. de Gasparis, at Naples, May,
1850 ; the name of the Victoria, discovered by Mr. Hind in same year, was
clianged for that of Clio ; the Ef^eria planet, discovered by de Gasparis, at
Naples, November, 1850. Another discovered by Mr, G. P. Bond, of
Cambridge, United States, August, same year; and one by Dr. Peterson, of
Altona, situate near the North Pole.
ATTORNEY-GENERAL, U. S. A. Appointed by the President, and is one of
the members of the Cabinet. He is the legal adviser of the executive gov-
ernment. The first attorney-general of the United States was William Brad-
ford, appointed by Washington. 1789. (See Administrations.) There are
also District Attorneys for the United States, appointed by the President,
for the several districts in each State of the Union. In each State there is
also an attorney-general of the State ; in some States appointed by the gov-
ernor and legislature, in others elected by the people.
AUSTRIA. Ultimatum of the Austrian government delivered at Berlin, Nov.
6, 1850. directing that Prussia evacuate Hesse, dissolve the Erfurt league,
&c., which is replied to by the Prussian king signing an order for calling out
the whole military force of the monarchy. The Russian ambassador at Vi-
enna, Nov. 11. announces that the continuance of the Russian policy in the
electorate will be considered by his government a causus belli. Protest of
France, and remonstrance of Lord Palmerston at Vienna, Dec. 1850, against
the proposed extension of the Germanic confederation beyond the Alps. The
Austrians complete their military possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31, 1851, and
Feb. 2 proclaim their resumption of seignorial rule of the King of Denmark.
The Emperor establishes a council of the empire by imperial decree, April
1851. The German diet, July 17, in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest
against annexing the non-German provinces of Austria to the German Fed-
eration, reply " that no foreign interference should be allowed in a purely
Germanic question." August 20, the Emperor, by cabinet letters, declares
"that his ministers are res})onsible to no other political authority than the
throne," and the minister-president is directed to take into consideration the
possibility of carrying out the constitution of March, 1849.
BALLOONS. Mr. Green and the Duke^f Brunswick in April 1851, crossed the
British channel from Hastings, and in 5 hours landed safely near Boulogne;
greatest altitude mid-channel was 4000 feet. Mr. Green ascended on horse-
back from Vauxhall, July 1850 ; since then M. Poitevin has made several
ascents cn-chp.vaL and in a carriage and pair (July 1851), sometimes accom-
panied by his wife, &c. — In one ascent he carried up a live ostrich. Lt. Gale
(the Mazeppa of the Bowery Theatre) left Bordeaux with his balloon Sept.
1850. and was found dead the next morning in a field, dreadfully mutilated.
Several hazardous ascensions have since been made in France, one by an
aeronaut with his head downwards.
BAL'llMORE, U. S. A. Population, by the census of 1850, 169,000, being a
gain of 66 i)er cent, in ten years.
BANKS, PENNY. These were first instituted at Greenock in Scotland. Of 5.000
deposits the aggregate amount of nearly i;1100 gives an average of about 4s.
6d. each. In London and the provincial towns they are becoming very pop-
ular. In Whitechapel, 8000 deposits in nine months showed an accumulation
of nearly je2,000 or about 6s. each.
bis]
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
BANKS IN THE U. S. 1851. The following tables it is believed exhibit the
number, capital and general condition of the Banking interests in this coun-
try, to March 1851.
Maine -
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Boston
Vermont
Rhode Island
Providence
Connecticut
New-York
New- York city-
New .Jersey
Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
Wisconsin -
Texas
Maryland -
Baltimore
Iowa
Mississippi
Virginia
North Carolina -
South Carolina
Georgia -
Ohio
Indiana -
Kentucky -
Tennessee
District of Columbia
Delaware
Missouri
Michigan
Louisiana -
Alabama
Total -
Boston, Banker^s Ma^. 1851.
Capital.
$3,148,000
2,205,000
16,4()5,(XX)
21,760,000
2,195.000
3,037,865
8,159,037
20,949,732
20,949,732
27,300,330
3,646,7^^0
8.009,781
10,518,700
225,a)0
300,000
1,997,079
1,997,079
200.000
100,000
9.913.100
3'650;(XX)
11,431,183
5,329,213
7,425,171
2,082,910
9,180 IXX)
7,165,197
1,182,300
1.440,(X)0
2;258.751
1,150,000
13,267.120
200,000
863 $120,505,400 $51,446,000 $230,897,500
No. Bks.
Circulation.
Specie.
32
$2,300,000
$424,000
. 22
1.700,0(X)
150,000
102
9,600,000
645,000
- 30
6.000,000
2,100.000
27
2,300,000
120.000
- 38
1,100.000
130,000
23
1,400,000
130,000
- 14
5,200,000
880,000
152
18,000,000
880,000
28
6.400,(K)O
10,740,0^0
25
2,9(30,000
690.0tX)
- 58
7,000,000
2.500,000
15
1
4,130,000
4,000,000
1
12
i',2i6,u66
* 400,660
12
1
2,068,000
2,127,000
1
- 35
7,*do(),(V)(i
2,3()0,6(!)6
19
3,500,000
1,600.000
- 14
6,090,000
2,2tX),000
17
1,000,000
1,600,000
- 57
10,366,000
2,750.0(X)
14
3,300,800
1,280,000
- 23
6,680.000
2.680,n00
21
4,000,000
1,500.000
4
900,000
300,000
9
900,600
250,000
6
2,600.000
1,900,000
6
650,000
116,(K)0
5
2
4,200,000
7,300,000
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal Benevolent
Societies of New- York, for the year ending April 30th, 1851, were:
American Tract Society, $310,618 09
" Bible " 276,852 .53
" B. C. For. Miss. 8 months, 176,676 83
" Home Missionary Society, 150,940 25
" and Foreisn Christian Union. 11 months, - - - 56,265 82
" and Foreign Bible Society, .-...-- 29,648 28
" Baptist Home Missionary Society, 19,252 61
" Seaman's Friend Society, 22,(KXJ 00
" Society for Melior. condition of Jews. .... 11,19302
New- York State Colonization Society, - ' 22,000 00
" Association for Improving the condition of the Poor, - 32,327 31
" Society, Relief Widows and Orphans of Medical Men, amount
of funds, Nov. 1851, 10,292 94
$1,118,067 68
BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed, was established by some Ro-
man Catholic Prelates, in France in 1774.— Chambers's Ed. Jl. The British
and Foreign Bible Society has distributed during the 45 years ending Jan.
1. 1851,. more ih&n twenty -three millions of copies, in one hundred and forty
different languages.
BISHOPRICS, English Colonial.— Nova Scotia, established 1787 ; Quebec and
Montreal, united 1793; Calcutta, 1814; Barbadoes and Jamaica, 1824;
Madras, 1835; Sidney and Bombay, 1836; Toronto and Newfoundland,
6 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS^ 1850-51. [bRI
1839 ; New Zealand and Jerusalem, 1841 : Gibraltar, Antigua. Guiana, and
Tasmania, 1842 ; Fredericton and Colombo, 1845 ; Newcastle, Adelaide, Mel-
bourne, and Capetown. 1847 ; Hong-Kong and Prince Rupert's Land, 1849;
Lyttleton, 1850.— .V. Haven Ck. Rev.
BOOKS, U. S. — The number of volumes published during the year ending
June 30th, 1851, is estimated to have been 1,261, forming 1,176 distinct
works ; which were
Novels and Tales, 249
Theological and Religious 170
Histories and Travels 121
Biographical, 96 : Poetry and Hymns, 80 176
Science, Natural History, &c. 83
Classics, Education, <fec. 84
Law, 43; Medicine, 47 ; Agriculture, 20 110
Practical Mechanics 18
Arts, Music, and Architecture 57
Political Economy, Commerce, and Miscellaneous - • - 193
Total 1,261
'■'■Book Trade."
BOOKS Imported into United States for the year ending June 30, 1851 : —
In Hebrew, $74 00
Latin and Greek, 2,027 00
English, 341.755 00
Other Languages, 115,486 00
Periodicals and Illustrated Newspapers, 4,328 00
Periodicals and other works in course of publication, - - 2,861 00
Total, $466,531 00
Books exported during same period, .... $119,47500
American Almanac, 1852.
BOOKS, German.— Since the Easter Fair at Leipsic, 1851, not less than 3.860
new books had been published, up to Nov. ; and 1150 were then in prepar-
ation for issue. — Illus. Neivs.
BOOKS, London, 1850 about 4,400 were published, of which the Papal Question
furnished 180 iti one month; fiction, 500; law, 250; and travels, 200; the
remainder miscellaneous. — Illus. News.
BRITISH MUSEUM. The total income for the year 1850, was i;55,686 17s. Id. ;
and the actual expenditure within the same i)eriod, i:47,463 5s. lOd.
BOSTON, U. S. A. Population by the census of 1850, 135,000, being an increase
of 42.000, or about 45 per cent, in tcn*5'ears.
BRIDGES. The Suspension Bridge over the Niagara river, near the Falls, com-
pleted July 28, 1848. C. E. Ellett was the engineer. The Britannia Tubular
Bridge, over the Menai Straits, between Caernarvon and the Isle of Anglesea,
completed October, 1850, Mr. Stephenson engineer, at an outhiy of nearly
£600 000. A suspension bridge over the Ohio, at Wheeling, span 1010 feet,
being 152 feet longer than the Friburg bridge, Swit/ierland, was completed
by Mr. Ellett. 1850. Remington's bridge, at Montgomery, Ala., on the same
plan as that he exhibited in London about two years ago. though slight in
appearance, is of extraordinary merit for its strength and ingenuity. The
floating bridge, for passage of railroad cars across Lake Champlain, went
into operation 1st Sept., 1851,
BRITAIN, GREAT, and BRITISH ISLES. The retm-ns of for/ v thousand enu-
merators show the population of this country, in March 1851, to be, males
10,192 721 ; females, 10,748,747, being an increase during the last 50 years
of 98 per cent. ; the average of annual rate of increase dnring that period,
is 1-37. This amount is exclusive of absent soldiers and sailors, the number
of whom is estimated at 167,604. In Scotland, the rate of increase for the
car] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51.
ish metropolis, including parts of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, give a total
population of 2,361.640, the preponderance in which is females. — Parllamen-
tary Returns.
BUILDING (Benefit) SOCIETIES. First established at Kircudbright, Scot-
land, 1815 ; after 1830 they increased rapidly. —,Scm^c4Z^?/'s Treatise on B. B.
Societies. Several have been in successful operation in New-York since 1848.
CALCULATING MACHINE. A very superior one exhibited in the Crystal
Palace, 1851 by J. A. Statfel, of Warsaw. This extraordinary machine was
the effect often years undiminished study and application ; by it any errors
may be corrected and the operator warned of any surplus calculation. — Illus.
Nev'S.
CALIFORNIA. St.ate of, U. S. A. Constitution ratified by the people, Nov.
13, 1849. Tlie State admitted into the Union by vote of the United States
Senate. Aug. 18. 1850. and on Sept. 9, 1850, the California Senators, Dr. Wm.
M Gwin and Col. J. C. Fremont, took their seats. The number of emigrants,
to Calitbrnia, passing Fort Laramie, and n^gistered to June 20, 1850. are, men,
82 740; women. 494 ; children. 591 ; of mules, 6 725 ; oxen, 21.418; cows,
0.185 ; horses, 28,798 ; and wagcms. 7.586. The census returns for 1850, in-
dicate a white population of 165.000 and 1,800 colored, making the fractional
representative enumeration 74,000 and thus securing a second Representa-
tive in Congress. — Dailij Times. First overland party of the season. 1851,
arrives at Placervillc Jul}^ 17, in 77 days from St. Joseph's. Gov. McDougal
issues a proclamation. July 21, against ' Vigilance Committees," calling upon
all good citizens to sustain the laws. From Jan. to 31 Oct. 1851, inclusive, the
number of vessels at Boston. New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New
Orleans, show an evident decrease in the clearances and cargoes for that
country. — Boston Price Cwrrcvt. Great fire in San Francisco, Sept. 17, 1850,
loss S300 000 ; more than 200 houses destroyed by fire in Nevada City, esti-
mated loss, ST 300^000. Another fire at San 'Francisco May. 3. 1851, several
lives lost and many injured, 2 500 buildings consumed, and from one to five
millions of proptu'ty destroyed. A fire at Stockton, May 14, total loss
Sl,500,000. Shock of an earthquake felt at San Francisco, May 15. Jenkins
hung at San Francisco and the police driven back by the "Vigilance Com-
mittee," June 10, 1851. Ai^other fire (the sixth) at San Francisco, June 22.
600 houses Inirned, and $3^000,000 property consumed. " Jim Stuart" hung
at San Francisco. July 11, 1851. being the second execution by the " Vigi-
lance Committee." At Sacramento, Aug. 21, a prisoner under sentence of
death, but reprieved by the Governor, is forcibly executed by the citizens.
Aug. 24, Whittaker and McKenzie taken by force from the jailer at San
Francisco, and publicly executed by the " Vigilance Committee." Aug. 80,
a fire consumes part of Marysville, California. California Fleet.— The whole
number of clearances from the United States for California, in the year 1850,
was 565, of which 181 were from New York, and 170 from Boston.
CANADA. A memorial for annexation to the United States received, in five
hours, the signatures of 300 merchants, land-owners, and professional men,
in Montreal, "Oct. 10,1850.
CARDINAL WISEMAN, born at Seville, created cardinal January, 1848, public
assumption in London, 1850. The operations of the Catholics arising from
this creation produced great excitement in England. A London bookseller
issued a catalogue of more than 1700 English works on Popery, which h©
offered for sale. — See Westminster,
8 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [ COA
CARPETS IN NEW- YORK. Prior to 17G0 they were not known, bnt in the
papers of that date Matthew Wilders advertises a variety imported from
Scotland. — Noah's S. Times.
CATHOLICS, 1851. Prelates in the U. States— Archbishops, 16 ; Bishops, 85 ;
Vicars Apostolic, 10.— Ami dc Religion. The total income received by three
Catholic institutions in Low. Canada, was stated by the Montreal Courier,
of March, 1851, to be larger than the whole Provincial revenue. Real es-
tate in the Papal dominions is stated at ^1^5.000,000.—// CaUolico Christiano
{Maltese paper), 1851. The number of Catholics in the United States is esti-
mated at 1,233,350 {Am. Almanac), while the entire Catholic population of
the world, Greek and Roman, is judged by Ungewitter and Dr. Baird to
amount to nearly 200,000,000. The great " aggregate meeting" of Roman
Catholics from all parts of the United Kingdom for inauguration of the
Catholic Defence Association, held at Dublin, Augnst 19th, 1851. The
Duke of Norfolk, whose ancestors for centuries observed the Roman Catho-
lic faith, secedes to the Protestant Church, Sept., 1851.
CHICAGO. From the returns of eight of the largest establishments in this
city, the business oj)erations for 1851 were : — Cattle slaughtered, 30,800 ;
barrels beef packed, 59 600; barrels tallow, 7,342 ; hides, 30,800 ; tons of
salt used, 2,023 ; number of hands employed, 403. — Chicago Trib. aiid N.
Y. Daily Times.
CHILI. Suspension of " discriminating duties'^ upon Chilian vessels deter-
mined by U. States Nov. 1, 1850, so long as the equality of maritime imposts
is maintained between the two countries. Don Manuel Montt inaugurated
President, Sept. 18, 1851:
CHINA. The progress of the disturbance in the southern provinces excites
serious alarm in the Imperial Court, Pekin, June 23, 1851.
CHOLERA appeared on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, in the antumn of
1850, and before the 1st December, more than 6,000 persons had fallen vic-
tims. It also appeared in California, Oct, 22, 1850. In the city of Mexico,
2,700 persons died of cholera in four weeks — May and June, 1850.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND, Great excitement and agitation in England re-
specting a dispute on doctrine between the Bishop of Exeter and Rev. Dr.
Gorham, one of his clergy. The Privy CounciFs decision in favor of the
latter, afterwards ratified by tlie courts, March 8, 1850. According to evi-
dence of Mr, Baines before Committee H, Commons, 1851, there were in
Gt, Britain 13,193 places of worship dissenting from the tenets of the Es-
ta'blished Church ; to which may be added R, Catholic chapels 597, minor
sects and Jews 550; making the total of nonconformist churches 14,340.
CINCINNATI, the " Queen of the West,' had by the census of 1850. a popula-
tion of 115,590. In 1840, it was 46,382. Increase, in ten years, 69,208, or
about 150 per cent.
CLOCKS. Between 200,000 and 300 000 clocks are manufactured annually in
the State of Connecticut ; the brass works being made by machinery with
mathematical precision, Chauncey Jerome of N. Haven makes upwards of
800 per day, some of which he sells at sixty cents each wholesale, warranted.
An astronomical clock exhibited in Crystal Palace, by Dr, Henderson of
Liverpool, requires winding up but once in a century. It was commenced
in 1844, and finished for the Great Exhibition. — Illus. News.
COALS. Comparative view of the areas of coal lands, and the production, in
1846, of the six principal producing countries.
com]
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
Countries.
Square Miles,
of Coal For-
mation.
Tons of Fuel
produced in
1845.
Relative
parts of
1,000.
Official estimated Value at the
Places of Production.
American
Dollars.
Pouiuls Scer-
jing.
Great Britain...
Belgium
United States...
France
11,859
518
133,132
1,719
not defined.
31,500,000
4,960,077
4.400,000
4,141,617
3,500,000
659,340
642
101
89
84
70
14
45,7.38,000
7,689,900
6,6.50,000
7,663,000
4,122,M5
800,000
9,450.000
1,660,000
1,373,963
1,603,106
856,370
165,290
Prussian States.
Austrian States.
Total
49,161,034
1,000
72,663,845
15,108,729
COAL FIELDS, 1851. East of the Mississippi, 124,735 square miles ; west of
ditto, 8,379 square miles. This is all bituminous. The anthracite of Penn-
sylvania is about 437 square miles. In Europe & Brit. America we find : —
Great Britain and Ireland, anthracite, .... 3,720 sq. miles.
" " bituminous, - - - 8,139 "
British America, " .... 18.0(X) "
Spain, " ... 3,408 «
France, " .... 1,719 »
Belgium, " * " " . ^'18 "
Scientific American.
The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its employment
in the manufacture of iron and in the production of steam and gas. have, of
late years, given an amazing impulse to the trade in this article. Coal was
discovered in Mansfield, Massachusetts, about 1835, but the efforts to ren-
der the same available were only efficiently applied by the Mansfield Mining
Co.. in 1848, which establishment it is expected will work the mine to much
public advantage. The main shaft is 171 feet from the surface, and four
other shafts lead from this, making the entire length 1.100 feet. — Boston
Troxdler. The amount of Pennsylvania anthracite coal sent to market
in 1850 was 3.127,083 tons. Coal-field found at Port Philip, V. D. Land,
June, 1851; surpassing any of those in the sister coloni(is.
COAL, GT. BRITAIN, The present home consumption is about thirty-two
millions of tons annually : export about six millions. — Anderson's " Course
of Creation.^'
COD FISHERY. The total amount of tonnage employed in the cod fishery of
Marblehead. Mass., from 1794 to 1850, was 28,233,507. Number of vessels
rating over fifty tons each, 3147 ; under fifty tons, 1007. Vessels lost in
1846, eleven —A'. Y. Sun.
COFFEE AND TEA. Value of imported into the United States of America,
For the year ending, June 30, 18-19 .-—Coffee, $9.0.38.352 ; Teas, $4,071,789.
" " 1850: '' 11.2;y4.835; " 4,7 19,'-?32.
« " 1851: " 12,851,070; " 4,798.005.
Coiirier.
COINAGE OF TUE U. S. Mint and Branchf-s. for the year ending December
31, 1819. Gold, value 89.007.761 ; silver, :n^2 114^*50 ; copper, ^^41.984 ; total,
$11,164,695. The amount of coinage at Philadelphia, 1851, from January
to Novembers inclusive, was : gold. S46 139.131 ; silver, ^246 650; silver
three cent pieces, .1i)140 653 ; coi)per, S91,988 ; total i;|,*16,624.122. The Cali-
fornia gold deposited at the Mint during that period was :ip42.512.588. —
Tribune.
COMMERCE, Internal, of the United States, 1851. The aggregate value of
the lake trade, as appears by returns made at the bureau of Topographical
Engineers, amounts to the enormous sum of $$186,485 269, or more, by
^40,000,000, than the whole foreign export trade of the country. The aggre-
10 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [cOT
gate tonnage is 203.041 tons, of which 35,904 is foreign. The net value of the
commerce of the ' western rivers is S-5G. 233,820 ; the vahie of vessels,
S18,661 500. The gross value of the internal commerce of the United States
may be estimated at S'795,654.744.
COMMERCIAL Tonnagk, thk, of England is stated at 3,130,000 tons. If so,
the United States will stand as the first commercial nation in the world, as
her tonnage on the 30th of June, 1850, was as follows : registered tonnage
. in foreign trade, 1 585 711 tons; vessels in coasting trade, 1,797,824 tons;
fishing vessels, 151,918; in whale fishery, 146,016 tons. Total, 3,681,469
tons.
CONVENTION of Delegates from Southern States in defence of the slavehold-
ing interest, at Nasshville, June 3, 1850 ; and again November 12, 1850.
COPPER. The Connecticut mines are stated by Professor Silliraan to extend
over thirty miles south of Bristol and would employ, it' thoroughly worked,
30,000 miners. The net profits in 1849 were S120 000; and the yield in-
creases in value every foot the miners proceed. From Lake Superior the
shipments of copper, till the close of navigation, 1850, were 2,680,000 lbs. —
Ann. Scicntifiz Discovery.
COSTUME, Bloomer. The male costume was entirely adopted by Miss Web-
ber, an agriculturist of Belgium, in 1850; and a partial modification by Mrs.
Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, New- York, in 1851. Attempts have been made
for its general adoption, both in this country and in England ; but the pro-
priety of female opinion has hitherto been against it.
COTTON. First exported from this country to Liverpool in 1784, when eight
bales were seized by the customs, who disputed its positive shipment from
the United States. In 1791 the exports to Great Britain were about
2,000,000; the shipments now made exceed 800,000,000 lbs. With the ex-
ception of Liverpool, more cotton is shipped from New Orleans to Boston
than to any other part of the world. — V. Flax-Cotton. The quantity
received in England from the United States has increased from seventy
millions of pounds in 1849, to nearly one hundred and twenty millions in
1850; the former being about 9 per cent, of the whole quantity imported by
that country, the latter about 18 per cent. — Morninii; Express. The ratios
of cotton imported byGreat Britain in the five years 1844-49 were : America
78^ per cent., India 10^. Brazil 7, Egypt, 3^, West Indies and miscellaneous
0^ per cent. '• If ^ve could derive a larger supply than we now do from
our oTv'n colonies, equally good and cheap with that from the United
States, it would be nationally beneficial in many ways." — Compmmm to
British AlwM.nac, 1851; The exports of cotton from the United States in 1850
were valued at S72. 000.000. The value of entire product of United States
cotton goods for year ending June 30, 1851, was S61,859,184. — Herald.
COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America. 1851. The follow-
ing is the estimated number of spindles in actual operation : Great Britain,
17 500 000; France. 4.300.000; United States, 2.500 000; Zollverein States,
815 000; Russia. 700,000; Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain,
300,000; Italy. 300.000. Total, 28,985,000.
COTTON MANUFACTURES in the United States. It is estimated that the
annual product of all the cotton mills in the United States is 250,000,000
yards, and the consumption of cotton 600,000 l)ales ; 100,000 bales of which
are consumed south of the Potomac and in the Western States. The value
of this amount of cotton when manufactured, is supposed to be upwards
of sixty-seven millions. Convention of cotton planters at Macon. Georgia,
October 28, 1851.
dec] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 11
CUBA. Trial of General Lopez and others, engaged in the Cuban expedition,
commenced in Circuit Court, New Orleans, December 17. 1850. General
Quitman, of Mississippi, arrested by United States Marslial February 3,
1851, on cliarge of setting on foot a military expedition against Cuba ; he
issues a pay)er to the p(>opIe of Mississippi, resigning his office as Governor.
Proclamation by the President United States, April 25, warning all persons
within jurisdiction of the States from aiding or engaging in any expedition
against Cuba. Arrest of O'Sullivan and others, April 26, on charge of being
concerned in a Cuban mihtary expedition then titting out in New- York.
Steamer Pampero, with Lopez and 400 to 500 volunteers, sails from New
Orleans, Aug. 3 ; disembark at Cabanos on the 12th ; Col. Crittenden, on his
route to join Lopez then in advance, is attacked by 500 Spanish troops and
his forces scattered. Lopez having repulsed Gen. Enna, at Las Posas, retreats
to the mountains ; is taken by bloodhounds on the 29th, and publicly garot-
ted at Havana, September 1. Col. Crittenden puts to sea, but is captured
with 50 of his comrades on the 15th Aug. ; the whole are cgirried to Havana
and shot the next day. The remaining followers of Lopez, after enduring
great privations, are captured or surrender, and all but three or four con-
demned by the governor to 10 years' labor on the public works in Spain, for
which country they are shi})ped September 1, under escort. Great excite-
ment at New"Orleans, Aug. 21, growing out of the above ; the Spanish resi-
dents attacked, and the Spanish Consul placed in city prison for safety.
Mr. J. S. Tlirasher, late editor of the ''Faro Industrial," arrested at Ha-
vana, and after a trial resulting in his conviction, sent to Spain 24th Nov.,
1851. The American prisoners in Spain pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851.
DAGUERREOTYPES. Of the innumerable variety of specimens of this Art,
those of the United States are considered superior for brilliancy and execution.
It is estimated that not less than 15,000 persons are connected with this Art
in the U. States, and that the amount of material annually consumed in their
operations exceeds S900,000. The nearest approach to success in Daguer-
reotypes in natural colors is that of M. Niepce the original inventor of the
Art— Daguerre having only perfected the discoveries of that gentleman. Da-
guerre died in Paris, July 1851. Hill's " discoveries " in colored Daguerreo-
typy decided by a committee of " New York State Daguerreotype Associa-
tion," 18th Nov^ 1851^ to be " an unmitigated delusion."
DEBTS OF THE STATES IN THE AMERICAN UNION, 1851. In round
numbers the debts of the different States for the year 1851, are estimated^^as
follows : —
POO obi) • Mi?pissippi, $7,270,000; Louisiana, $ I (5,2aS,000 ; Texas, $11,000,000; Arkansas,
$3 850 000- Tenncf'see, $3,337 ,000 ; Kentucky, $4,497,000; Ohio, $49,000; Indiana,
$6,530,000; Illinois, $5,590,565; Michigan, $2,800,000; Missouri, $156,000; Iowa,
$55,000; Wisconsin, none ; California, $650,000.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In March 1851 the Legislature of
North Carolina accepted a Report affirming as a well-ascertained historical
fact that the celebrated Mecklenburg Declaration was published m June,
1775 —large portions of which were embodied in Mr. Jefferson's Declaration
of the following year. A resolution was passed that the Governor cause to
bo transmitted the block of marble presented by Lincoln county for the
Washington Monument with the arms of the State and the following inscrip-
tion sculptured thereon,— 'North Carolina, Declaration of Independence,
Mecklenburg, May 20, 1776.
No, Votes.
to
Pop.
839,371
1 in 42
550,000
2,750,000
1 in 137*
1 in 7
12 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [eDU
DEMOCRACY of England, France and the United States— Compared.
Votes Voteo
Country, Pop. No. Votes. to Country. Pop.
Pop,
England, 17,000,000 630,721 1 in 26 I Great Britain ; no arn nnn
Wales, 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 and Ireland, \ ^O'^''^'^'^"
Scotland, 2,800,000 72.720 1 in 38 I France, 34,000,000
Ireland, 8,000,000 98,006 1 in 81 | United States, 20,000,000
DENMARK. Battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners ;
Danes lose 116 killed and 2,373 wounded. Holsteiners retire, but advantage
about equal July 25, 1850. Sec Germany, Austria, &c. The Government
of Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Commissioners oif the Germanic Confed-
eration, Jan. 10, 1851. The Danish mining operations in Greenland 1851 pro-
duced large quantities of copper ore, yielding about sixty per cent.
DIAMONDS. The Koh-i-noor, or " Moun/ain of Li^ht,'' valued at ^62,000,000,
received in England from India, July, 1850. 'The actual value of this Dia-
mond tested by Mr. Jeffrey's tables is ^260,000. It is however exceeded
by the famous Portugal Diamond, weighing 1,680 carats; this Diamond has
never been cut or polished, and is valued by the Portuguese Government at
£5,644 000! The Durra-i-Noor or Sea of Light, the property of the East
India Company, a blue Diamond belonging to the Queen, another in Mr.
Hope's collection (177 grs.) with several parti-colored, and a green diamond
owned by the King of Saxony, are among the most remarkable gems of the
present day. Several pink diamonds were exhibited in the " Crystal Pal-
ace," also a Black diamond weighing 350 carats, the property of Mr. Joseph
Mayer.
.DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1786, a
small volume of 82 pages, printed by Shepherd KoUock, Wall street ; the
names of the individuals and lirms include about 900, and occupy 33 pages,
the remainder being lilled with general statistics of the City, U. S. Govern-
ment, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address the Editor states it was the
"first Directory ever attempted in this country." The N. Y. Hist. Society
possesses a complete set from its first publication to 1851.
DOLLAR. This w^ord is said to have originated from the following circum-
stance. In 1516 a silver mine was discovered at St. Joachim's Thai (or dale)
in Bohemia, the proprietor of which issued a number of silver pieces which
were called Joachim's Tkaler ; by subsequent corruptions this word became
Dollar, the mark S is simply a monogram of the letters P. S. — i. e. Peso the
Spanish word for Dollar.
DRAMATIC FUND ASSOCIATION. This benevolent institution for the re-
lief of decayed or disabled members of the profession, in this country, was
founded in New York, April 1848.
EARTH, Rotation of thk. M. Foucault's public demonstration in Paris, May
1851, of the rotation of the earth, was preceded by a similar exhibition b/
M. Guyot, Paris, 1836.
EDUCATION. General convention of the friends of education in the United
States, at Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 1849, and again, Aug. 1850. The report of
the Board of Education of New York, for 1851, shows the number of children
attending the 207 schools in that district, as 107,363. Yearly outlay,
$274,794; average expense of each child for the scholastic year of 204 days,
is S6 86. The London Athenaeum in referring to this report states that the
governmental cost of each criminal in Great Britain is, from first to last,
nearly je400! and nobly endorses that great truth in political economy,
* Before the late revolution. At the election in December, 1851, the suffrage was nominally
* imiv«rsal,' and the number of votes was about 8,000,000.
ERi] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 13
that " The cheapest system of pohce is education !" Students in New- York
Free Academy, 1851, 382 ; professors and tutors 17. — F. A. Catoln^ve {See
Schools.) In the United States there are 217 colleges and professional schools,
120 colleges proper, 43 theological, 17 law, 37 medicine. Of the colleges 13
are Baptist, 8 Episcopalian. 13 Methodist, and 11 Roman Catholic. The
number of volumes in the different collegiate libraries is 871;800. — American
Almanac.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The crude idea was started by Schvventer, a Ger-
man, in 1630. — Land. Pkilos. Jour. In 1684 the celebrated Hooke presented
a communication to the Royal Society, " showing how to communicate one's
mind at great distances, not by sound but by sight V^ — Chambers. In 1774,
Le Sage of Geneva submitted a plan for an electric telegraph, to Frederick
the Great, as " the monarch best capable of realizing it." In 1787, Lomond,
of Paris, exhibited to Arthur Young " an alphabet of motions" appertaining
to an electric telegraph ; the distances to be accomplished by which. Young
expressly states, " depended solely on the length of the wires." In Jan. 1851,
iwenly-iwo thousands miles of a continuous telegraphic route, extending from
Halifax, N. S., to '^ew Orleans, and as far West as Dubuque, Iowa, was ac-
complished as follows : Professor Morse's principle, 12,000 miles ; Messrs.
House and Bain 10,000 miles. ^^Sae/i. American. Dec. 2, 1851, a dispatch of
34 words was sent from New York to New Orleans, a distance of 1,900 miles,
and an answer received in less than jive mimites ; the whole distance traversed
being 3,800 miles. — N. Y. Commercial. BakewelFs copying electric telegraph
experimented on, A})r. 1851, gave fac-similes of autographs, at the rate of
120 to 150 letters x)er minute. The submarine telegraph between Dover and
Calais, completed Oct. 17, opened for public use Nov. 13, 1851. United
States brig Dolphin, sailed Oct. 1851, npon her expedition to run a line of
soundings for telegraphic purposes across the Atlantic.
EMIGRATION to the U. S. A. Passengers arrived in the year ending June
30, 1849, 299,610, of whom 213,736 landed at New York; in 1850 the num-
ber was 315,333, of whom 212 796 landed in New York.
ENGLAND. Resignation of the Russell Ministry Feb. 22, 1851 ; after several
unsuccessful attempts by Lord Stanlej^ to form a cabinet, Lord J. Russell
and his colleagues resumed their ministerial functions. Second reading of
the prohibited Afiinity Marriage Bill, lost in the House of Peers, Feb. 25,
by a vote of 10 to 50 ; Lord Campbell and the Ecclesiastical Bench voting
in the majority. Great Exhibition, May l^i, ichich see. Banquet to royal
and foreign commissioners of Great Exhibition, on board American steamer
Atlantic at Liverpool, by Mr. "VV. Brown, M. P., July 12, 1851. Oath of
Abjurati#n (Jew) Bill, passed by the Commons, is refused a second read-
ing in the House of Lords, July 17- by a majority of 36. July 18, Alderman
Salomons, the Jewish member for Greenwich, not permitted to take his seat.
(Case in abeyance.) Resignation of Lord Palmerston, Sec. for Foreign Af-
fairs. Dec. 1851.
ENVELOPES FOR LETTERS. Delarue's machine in London completes no
less than 396,000 daily, the cutting, folding, and gumming, being performed
by one single operation.— ///^/.s. News. Dr. Hawes' three machines at
Worcester, Mass., complete, count and pack 36.000 per day, and prepa-
rations are making for a contract of 120,000 daily.— W. Spy.
ERIE CANAL ENLARGEMENT. The passage of this bill defeated in the
New York Senate April 10. 1851, by the withdrawal and resignation of
twelve of the democratic members. The bill passed by new Legislature,
1851.
ERIE RAILROAD. This great undertaking, extending from N. Y. city to
14 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS; 1850-51. [eXP
Dunkirk, 469 miles, was opened by President Fillmore, Mr. Webster, &c,,
15th May, 1851. Original charter 1882; cost nearly «20,000,OJO ; first
regular journey 19th May, 1851, the whole distance being completed in 17
hours, or nearly 27!^ miles per hour.
EXHIBITIOI^. GREAT, LONDON, opened by the Queen, May 1, closed Oct.
11,1851. This building, erected for the exhibition of the "World's In-
dustry"' in arts, manufactures, &c., covered nearly nineteen acres, being four
times the size of St. Peter's at Rome. It was erected from the designs of
Joseph Paxton, almost entirely of glass and iron ; the cubic contents of the
building were 33 000,000 feet; height of the transept, 108 feet.—
Total cash receipts from privileges, season tickets and visitors, - - - j£505,107
Of which $356,808 25 was taken in the Is. days.
Expenses and appropriations, 355,000
Net profit, - je 150,107
Total number of visitors, 6,201,856
Larsrest number of admissions on closing day, being at 5 P. M., - - - 108,0(X)
Number of Exhibitors. 17,000
Council Medals awarded to Great Britain, 79 ; Germany, 12 ; Austria, 4 ; Belgium, 2 ; Tuscany.
2; Spain, 1 ; France, 56; United States, 5; Russia, 3 ; Switzerland, 2; Holland,!; Rome,
1 ; and Turkey, 1. Total, 169.
Jury Medals^ oi which 9 were awarded to U. S , 2,918.
The number of letters received by the acting Commissioners during their official session was
Thirly-stven Thousand !
It is not a little to the honor of the United States that the articles com-
bining the greatest -utiUty were exhibited by American citizens ; McCor-
mic's Reaping Machine being one of the most important and successful.
EXPLOSIONS, Fires, E a rthq.ua kes, &c. Portuguese frigate, Donna Maria IL,
of 32 guns, accidentally destroyed by explosion at Macao, China, Oct. 29,
1850, when 188 of the 244 men on board perished. At Fredericton, N.B.,
near 300 houses destroyed by fire. Nov. 11, 1850. A terrible hurricane at
Cape Girardeau, Mo., Nov. 27, 1850, and many of the principal buildings
destroyed. Steamer Anglo-Norman, on a pleasure trip, explodes at New Or-
leans, Dec. 13, 1850, nearly 100 persons killed, wounded and missing.
Violent storm, Boston and vicinity, March 17, 18 19, 1851, unusual rise of tide,
and great damage to property on wharves. Earthquake at Valparaiso, South
America, April 2, the most violent since that of 1822, few lives lost, but great
destruction of property. Great storm on the whole sea-coast of Massachu-
setts, April 15, 16, 17, greatly exceeding the injuries of the preceding month.
The city of Amalfi, and neighboring towns southeast of Naples, visited by a
series of shocks by earthquake July 14, and 3,000 persons supposed to have
pei'ished. Volcanic eruptions from 8 craters, in the mountains of Martin-
ique, West Indies, Aug. 5. Tornado, attended with great injifry to build-
ings. &c., at St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 15 ; this was preceded ))y storms and
freshets in Iowa and Tennessee. On the 17th great damage to shipping at
Castries, St. Lucia, by an extraordinary commotion of the sea. A destruc-
tive tornado passed over Waltham, West Cambridge, and Medford, Mass.,
Aug. 22, doing much damage in its progress. Same day a violent storm
blew down and unroofed buildings, &c., at Tallahassee, Florida.
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849, imports
8147,857,430. exports $145,755,820; excess of imports, $2 101,619. Imports
for year ending June 30, 1850, S178,138 318. Year ending June 30. 1851,
imports $210 000.000, exports $188 000 000 ; excess of imports $22 000 000.
Specie imported same period, $5,000 000; do. exported, chiefly California
gold, $29 000,000. The amount of imports in 1850. for articles of dress and
personal ornament, was stated by N. Y. Express to be $18,476,768.
EXPORTS OF Great Britain and Ireland, 1849, ;e58,848,042— being an in-
^Ra] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51, 15
crease of i;9,902,717 over those of 1848. Of the exports there were :— To
British Colonies. £W 594 087 ; China, i:l 445 959 ; United States of America,
^9,5(54 909 ; Cuba, i;788.169 ; Brazil. i:2.067.299; Mcixico and Central South
America, X3. 757.463. In 1850 the British exports were, to United States,
i:14 891,951, and to forty-four other countries. i;37 847,085; total exports,
1850.£71M7 .SS6.— Pari. Returns. Imports by Great Britain. 1851. amount
exclusive of London was, England, £6,691.629 ; Scotland, £1.951,981 ; Ireland,
£2 055,925.— ///i^s. iVe7t'5. ' - > ; ,
FIRES. At San Francisco, S*l;500.000 worth of property destroyed, Dec. 24,
1849 Another at same place. May 4, 1850 ; 200 buildings, value $4,000 000,
destroyed. Anotlier at same place, 300 houses, &c., value $5,000,000
burnt, June 14, 1850.— 6'cc Explosions.
FIRE-ANNIHILATORS. The Water Bomb for extinguishing fires, invented*
by Zachary Greyl, a German, 1721 ; another by an English chemist, 1823,
Phillips's annihilator, experimented with in New York, 1851. Salomon's
gas engine exhibited, Cincinnati, Sept. 1851 ; and one by W. Lay, at Phila-
delphia, same year. First fire engines in New- York, brought from London,
1713, with hooks and ladders.
FLAX-COTTON. M. Claussen's patent, in 1850, for a new preparation of hemp,
under the title of cotton flax, having excited much attention, extensive pre-
parations were made in Great Britain and Ireland, for the cultivation of flax
for the new material. A sample of 60 tons manufactured for a Manchester
house, I flax and i cotton, was considered decidedly successful, when the
British Board of Trade agreed to purchase a company's produce of 100,000
acres, at the rate of £12 per acre. In the western states, and particularly
Ohio, the subject excited great interest, as a branch of trade well suited for
the agricultural facilities of that district.
FLOGGING IN THK NAVY. Bill to abolish it passed the House of Representa-
tives of the United States, 131 to 29, Sept. 19, 1850. Mr. Brodhead of Penn-
sylvania, presented a petition in Senate, Dec. 17, 1851, praying for " restor-
ation of flogging in the United States Navy."
FLORIDA. 1851. White population 47,167 ; free colored 925; slaves, 39,309;
total 87:401. Farms in cultivation 4,304 ; manufacturing establishments
producing annually upwards of '^bO^, 12^ -— Census Retatrns.
FRANCE, 1849. Nov. 9, M. Poussin, French minister to the U. S., having been
dismissed by the American government, sails for France. Nov. 12, trial of
the political offenders of June 1848 ends at Versailles ; 11 are acquitted, 20
convicted and sentenced— 17 to transportation for life, 3 to imprisonment for
five years. Nov. 15, Ledru Rollin and 30 other accused persons, absent from
trial, are sentenced to transportation for life. 1850, Jan. 1. The President
creates his uncle Jerome a marshal of France. April 15, 300 soldiers drown-
ed at Anglers by the fall of a bridge. May 16, the French ambassador re-
called from London in consequence of a difliculty connected with an English
claim on Greece. May 31, new electoral law restricting the right of sufl^rage,
passed. June 21, an arrangement with England on the Greek dispute.
June 24, dotation bill, giving the President 2,160,000 francs per ann., passed.
Dec. the French government protests, at Vienna, against the proposed ex-
tension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps. 1851, Jan. 3, the
Ministry resign. Feb. 8, the Presidential Dotation Bill proposing an additional
grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the assembly. March 25, Declaration at
Honolulu of arrangement of difficulties between the Haiwaian government
and the French republic. July 5, report of sub-committee on petitions, for
revision 741,011; for revision and prolongation of powers 370,511 ; for pro-
longation of powers 12,103; total signatures 1,123,166. July 19, question of
16 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. [gOL
revision of French Constitution again taken in Assembly, when the minority-
was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required by the constitution. Dec.
1, Revolution in France ; Louis Napoleon by a coup ifilat seizes the reins
of government, dissolves the National Assembly ; declares a state of sie^e ; ar-
rests the Members of the Assembly ; constitutes an entire new Ministry.
The President proposes the instant restoration of universal sufllrage ; an
immediate election by people and army of a President, to hold otiice for ten
years, to be supported by a council of state, and two houses of Legislature.
The revolution creates an intense excitement. Dec. 10, the vote of the army
shows a large majorityfor Louis Napoleon. Resistance to the usurpation is
shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the army,
and a " state of siege" in 33 departments, crushes all open opposition. Dec.
• 20, the election, under various controlling influences, results in the confirm-
ation of Louis Napoleon as President for 10 years, by a vote of about seven
millions out of eight millions. The French census of 1851 shows a total pop-
ulation of 35,500.000. The number of foreigners domiciled, of all nations,
exceeds 1,000^000, of which 75,000 are British, or about one-half the British
residents previous to the revolution of 1848.
GAS. First introduced in U. S. in City of Baltimore 1820, and shortly after in
Boston, New York and Philadelphia. — Sci. American. Opposed in Italy
by the Pope (Gregory XVI.) as " subversive of religion " in suppressing the
sale of wax candles for the shrines. — Gas Journal. Water Gas discovered
by Lavoisier, circa 1790. — Sci. American. Paine's Water Gas spoken of
during the last 5 or 6 years, but appears to have been accomplished by the
Frencii Chemists. Superior gas from wood and fibrous matter, the discovery
of a German, used at the R. R. Depot at Munich, 1851. In 1847 the expense
of gas at the London Gen. Post Office was i>3.047 ; increased facilities by the
Gas Co. gradually reduced the charges in 1850, when the whole amount paid
by the Post Office was ^1,485.
GEORGIA. Population in 1850 was,— white, 513,083 ; free colored, 2,586 ; slaves,
362 9G6; federal representative pop. 733,448. — Census Returns.
GERMANY. The Archduke John resigns his office as head of the central power
at Frankfort. Dec. 20, 1849. The Schleswig-Holsteiners under Gen. Willisen,
engage the Danes at Idstedt, in a bloody but indecisive battle, July 25, 1850.
The Schleswig-Holsteiners attempt to take Frederickstadt, but are repulsed
by the Danes and lose 500 men, Oct. 5, 1850. Difficulties in Hesse-Cassel,
between the Elector and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation. Aus-
tria and Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite
parts in the struggle ; but they are soon after withdrawn, without collision,
Sept.— Nov. 1850.
GIPSIES. A company from England arrived in Cecil county, Maryland, in
March 1851, bringing with them all their wandering habits and peculiarities.
GLOBES, MONSTER. Originally exhibited in Paris 1823, and a more perfect
one by M. Gu<^rin in 1844, which he styled the Georama. — Art. Jl Wyld's
Monster Globe erected in London 1851. employed 300 men nearly 30 days in
fitting up the interior. — ///. News.
GOLD. Received from California, in port of New York, 1851,
January, • - - $2,890,903
February - - - 4,363,471
March, - - - 1,951,055
Aoril, .... 2,02:j,119
May, - - - 2,2S2,.3.38
June. .... 3,975,355
July, - • . (13,004,311
Au2ust, - . . 4,105,089
September, - - 3,237,4(30
October - - - 3,756,241
Nov. to 21st, - . 5,238,813
Gold discovered at Ophir^ Bathurst District, Australia, by Mr. Hargreaves,
in Feb. 1851 ; and at Port Philip, iu June, same year. One piece weighed
HUN] addenda to the WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 17
8 lbs. 10 oz. ; and Dr. Kerr found in one day over 102 lbs., value i;4000 ster-
ling. The diggings are estimated at 300 miles in extent. Gold mines re-
ported to be discovered in the province of Gerona, Sf)ain, Oct. 1851. Nearly
^6750,000 sterling was raised in London, Nov. 1851, for California and Aus-
tralian gold mining operations.
GREECE. Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government, Nov. 1851, pro-
daces great sensation at Athens, and the ministerial crisis likely to end in
favor of the Russian party.
GUN COTTON. Discovered by Prof Schoenbein, in Germany, 1846, but its
practical utility for mining purposes supersedes its use in fire-arms.
GUTTA PERCHA. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was un-
known to European commerce. In that year two cwt. was shipped experi-
mentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port
rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picul is 1330 lbs.) ; in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847,
to 9,292; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first
four and a half years of the trade, 21.598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at
S274,190, were shi{)ped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to Eng-
land, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of
Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for do-
mestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied,
has given employment to thousands, not only in the factories of our own
and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago,
with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of
export.
HAMBURGH. Occupied by 4,000 Austrian troops, Jan. 1851.
HATS, STRAW. This branch of trade is principally carried on in Massachu-
setts. At Medfield the value of Bonnets made in 1851 was ^134,000 ; Fox-
boro' for the same period, S122.000 ; and in Franklin $160,000. In Boston
city alone there are over 300 sewers.
HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced into this country
by the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in
the forage of their horses.
HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of wdiicli
the names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be
900,000; 000, are as follows :
" '^^ Abyssinian, - - - 3,000,000
Papuan, - . - 3,000,000
Negrillo, - . . 3,000,000
Australian, - - - 600,000
Hottentot, - - - 500,000
Dr. P. supposes that there have been at least two centres whence these dif-
ferent races have been derived, one in Asia and the other in Africa ; he does
not support the original unity of the races in one parent stem. — See Picker-
ing's Races of Men, 1851. Professor Agassiz contends for a primitive
ubiquity, or different types of humanity co-existent in different climes and
countries.
HUNGARY. The fortress of Comorn surrenders to the Austrians, September
27, 1849. Count Louis Batthyani, late prune minister of Hungary, shot at
Pesth. at the sole urgency of Haynau, October 7, 1849. In his visit to Lon-
don, September, 1850, Haynau was attacked and severely maltreated for his
cruelty in the late Hungarian war. General Bem dies at Aleppo, December
9. The Austrian government and the Ottoman Porte, in Feb., 1851, con-
clude on a general amnesty towards the Hungarian refugees, eight only ex-
cepted, amongst whom is Kossuth. Mr. Charles Brace, an American, im-
White, -
350,000,000
Mongolian, -
- 300,000,000
Malayan,
120.000.000
Telingan, -
6(),b00.000
TS'egro,
55,000,000
Ethiopian, -
5,000,000
18 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [iRO
prisoned in Hungary May 28 on a charge of being an agent of Ujhazy and
Cretz, and travelling witli revolutionary books, &c., for the purpose of ex-
citing rebellion. The authorities of Pesth. November 15th, forbid the distri-
bution of all foreign journals, including those intended for editors of news-
papers, until decision is received as to what papers, &c., shall be admitted.
Louis Kossuth, ex-governor of Hungary, after a series of vicissitudes,
during which he was nobly protected by the Ottoman Porte, visits England
on his route to this country, landing at New-York, December 5, 1851, where,
as in England, he was received with every demonstration of friendship and
liberality, in return for his great exertions to procure the freedom of his
native country. His arrival in New- York was known, per tel('gra[)h. at Mil-
waukie. 1,000 miles distant, in less than fifteen minutes. Great Kossuth-
procession, Saturday. D.^cember 6th, 1851. This was followed by a public
banquet, professional dinners, &c., &c. ; Kossuth's semi-official interview
with the President at Washington, December 31. He is formally presented
to the Senate of the United States, January 5, 185*2.
ILLINOIS, Population of in 1850 was,— white, 816,101; colored, 5.360; farms
in cultivation, 76,208; dwelling-houses, 146,544; manufactories producing
annually S500 and upwards, 3,099. — Census Returns.
INDEX Expurgatory. In 1850 the " Congregation of the Index" among other
works placed on their pages Professor Vericour's (Cork College) " Historical
Annals of Christian Civilization." — lUvstraled Ncu^s. In 1851. D'Harmon-
ville's -'Diet, de Dates," 1844, Professor Whateley's " Elements of Logic," and
Henry's '^ Historical Institutions of Egyptians," were added to the list. The
last author, however, " made due submission to the Church." — Giornale di
Roma, April, 1851.
INDIA, British. A fourth presidency contemplated by Great Britain, Nov. 1851,
and a proposal to remove the seat of government from Calcutta to Lahore.
INDIANA, 1850. White population, 983,034; free colored, 5.100. Total,
988 734. Farms in cultivation, 93.896 ; manufactories producing auhually
S500 and u[)vvards 4.326. — Census Returns.
INDIA RUBBER. The natives of Hindostan were the first to collect this sub-
stance, which was introduced into England in 1735, for the purpose of re-
moving pencil marks from paper. — Atkeii. In 1772 a cubical one-half inch
of this substance cost 3s. sterling. Mr. Macintosh, of England, was the first
to manufacture the prepared gum for its present innumerable api)lications.
Cuirasses of vulcanized rubber were introduced in the French army, 1851,
and said to be bullet-proof (?) Tiie daily product of India rubber shoes,
made in tin; United States, is calculated at 15 000, at an annual profit of
nearly S'200 ^^0.— Fanner and Mjckanic.
INOCULATION. The small-pox was introduced into the United States
about 1517 ; and so late as the year 1769 we find the practice of inoculation
prohibited by law in Virginia.
IOWA. The population of this territory, according to census returns 1850,
was 192 214, and the aggregate vakiation of taxable property $22,623,334,
being an increase of ip4, 114,567 since 1849. — American Almanac.
IRON, United States, 1851.
Annually.
Mine at Salisbury, Conn., yields, - ..... 3, (.100 tons.
Biiichess and Columbia Co., N.Y., !;^0,ono "
E^sxCo., ..--•... 15,000 "
Clinton Co., ........ 3,000 "
Franklin Co., 600 "
Su Lawrance Co., 2,000 "
Value oflron produced in the U. S.,1S35, .... $6,000,000
" *' " 1837, • ... 7,700,000
LAN] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 19
The iron ores in Ohio. Kentucky. Tennessee. Illinois, Maryland, and Virginia,
from recent inspections, are found to be inexhaustible. — Sci. American. In
the Gentleman's Magazine, 1783, is a recommendatory article of cast iron,
then in its infancy, which is there said to be " capable of being carried to a
great extent."
JESUITS. In 1851 this body published in Italy a '' Catechism Pilosofw,'' or
dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for kings,
how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to
their people. — Ediii. Rev.
JEWS. Of the original twelve tribes, two only are at present known ; the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The Spanish. and Portuguese Jews are the
descendants of Judah ; the Jews of Germany and Northern Europe are of the
tribe of Benjamin —Art Jour. Dr. Raphael (lecture N. Y., May, 1851), states
that with the exception of Josephus, who wrote in Greek, and M. Jost, who
wrote in German, about 1841, the Jewish historians from the tirst century
(a.d..) to the nin(;teenth, invariably wrote in the Hebrew language. Dr.
Lykins, of the Pottawattamie Reservation, exhibited in the office of Indian
Department, Washington, in Dec. 1851, a Jewish frontlet, containing por-
tions of the Pentateuch, which he received from Pategwe, a Pottawattamie
Indian, in whose family it had been from time immemorial. There were
originally two of these indexes of Jewish faith, one of which was irrecover-
ably lost in crossing a river.— A'«^. Irdcl. This curious discovery may per-
haps be considered as strengthening the opinion of the late Miijor Noah,
that the American Indians are descended from the lost tribes of the Jewish
people.
KAFFIR (or Caffrf.) WAR, in South Africa, against the British Colonists;
Jan., Feb. 1851, several engagements and many lives lost. — See Africa.
KENTUCKY. The census returns show the })opulation in 1850 to have been
987.950; of whom 776,713 were free, and 211.287 slaves. The increase com-
pared with returns of 1810, is, free. 179,143; slaves, 28,979; total, 208,122.
The first white man who built in Kentucky, was James Harrod, in 1774, at
Harrod's Station, near the present town of Harrodsburg.
KOSSUTH.— 5*^^ Hungary.
LAND OWNERS. It is a remarkable fact, that of all the constitutional states
of Europe or America, Great Britain is the country in which the people
hold the smallest stake in the soil. France with a population of 32 560 034,
has 10.896.682 landed ])roprietors. or one in three. The United States, with
a po})ulation of 20 000 000, has 5 000,000 proprietors, or one in four. Belgium,
with a population of 5 022,677, has 950 J23 proprietors, or one in five. Hol-
land, a commercial and shipping countr3\ with a population of 3 500 000. has
400 000 proprietors, or one in nine Sweden, with a population of 3 874 203,
has 300.000 proprietors, or one in twelve. While Great Britain and Ireland,
with a population of27.04L050, have only 633 421, or one in forty of the popu-
lation, including freeholders and copyholders, with a direct interest in the
soil.
LANDS (Public) of tiir U. S. A. Within the limits recognized by treaties and
cessions (see American Almanac, 1850, p 179). the public lands covered an
estimated area of 1.584.000 000 acres. To the 30th Sept. 1849, 146 000 000
acres had been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438 000, acres, which land,
in lai-ge bodies of detached tracts, is found in the several States and Terri-
tories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the
public lands was established by the act of 20th May, 1785, and has continu-
ed to the present time but with slight modifications, viz. ; every township
of six square miles is to be divided into 36 sections, of one mile square, each
20
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
[lin
section generally containing 640 acres. The lands are then proclaimed by
the President for sale, at public auction, at not less than $1 25 per acre, and
such as hereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at that
rate. — American Almanac.
Quantity of Public Land sold, and the amount paid for it, in each Year, from 1833 to the
Third Quarter of 1850.
Years.
Acres.
Dollars.
Years.
Acres.
Dollars,
ia33
3,856,227-56
4,972,284 -84
1843
1,605,264-06
2,016.044-30
1834
4,658,218-71
6.099,981-04
1844
1,754.763-13
2,207,678-04
1835
12.564,478-85
15,999,804-11
1845
1.843,527-05
2,470,-303-17
1836
20,074,870-92
25,167,833-06
1846
2,263,730-81
2,904,637-27
1837
5,601,103-12
7,007,523-04
1847
2,521,305-59
3,296,404-08
1838
3,414,907-42
4,305,564-64
1818
1,887,-553 -04
2,621,615-26
1839
4,976,382-87
6,464,-556-79
1849
1,329,902-77
1,756,890-42
184(J
1841
2,236,889-74
1.164,796-11
2,789,637-53
1,463,364-06
1850*
869,082-32
1,129,186-50
1842
1,129,217-58
1,417,972-06
TotaH-
73,752,221-63
$94,191,279-21
• Embracing only three quarters of the year, t Total for eighteen years and three quarters.
LANGUAGE. Ethnography has furnished conclusive evidence that the
family of American languages have h.ad a common origin with those of
Asia. The unity of all human language must be considered as establishing
an identical unity of all the human races ; all dialects must be regarded as
dialects of one now lost. — Dr. Smyth'' s Unity of Human Races.
LAW. The number of Lawj^ers in the United States, in March 1851, was 21.979,
or about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants. — Monthly Law Magazine.
Estimating their average receipts at S'lOOO per annum, their aggregate
income would reach within a fraction of Ivienty-tico millions of dollars. In
1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers ; in Pennsylvania, 1,848 ; in
Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,182 ; in Kentucky, 1,066 ; and in Georgia,
908. — Livingston'' s Laio Register.
LETl'ERS. The number of letters transmitted in the following European
countries annually, were estimated, in March 1851, as follows: —
Populfition. Letters. Pr. Head.
Ensland, - - - 29,000,000 320,000.000 11-
France, .... 36.000,000 108,0(X3,000 3-
Prussia, - - - 16,500,000 45,000,000 2-7
Switzerland, - - - 2,403,000 13,600,000 5-6
Austria, - - - 37,000,000 23,000,000 0-6
Being rather more than hafa letter for each inhabitant of the Austrian dominions.
London Watchman. Vide P. Office.
LIBRARIES in United States, 1851. Professor Jewett, of the Smithsonian In-
stitute, shows the number of libraries to March, 1851, to be 10,610, and the
aggregate number of volumes 3,641,765. Of these, Harvard comprises
83,000; Philadelphia and Loganian, 60,000; Congressional, 50,000 ; Boston
Athenaeum, 56,000. The aggregate number of volumes in 182 of the largest
libraries was stated by Mr. Evans, before the select committee, British House
of Commons, to be 1,294,000. The Legislature of New- York, in 1851, voted
an appropriation of lj^75,000 for the erection of a State library in the rear of
the capitol at Albany. Among the donations to this library is one from
Austria of the Pater Noster in upwards of 600 languages and dialects, A large
portion of the valuable library of Congress destroyed by fire in the Ca^jitol,
Dec, 1851.
LINEN. The average annual import of linens into the United States is esti-
mated at about $6,500,000. The only manufactory in the United States is
that of Mr. Stevens, at Webster, Massachussetts. In 1840 the flax crop in
all the States north of the Ohio river, and including Maryland, covered some
mas] addenda to the world^s progress, 1850-51. 21
four millions of acres, averaging 350 lbs. flax lint per acre ; of which about
one-third is fit for linen fabric ; the remainder, say 1301bs., being available for
paper bagging, &c. The excess of profit in the culture of flax compared with
cotton, is shown by A^. Y. Tribune, April, 1851, to be nearly 50 per cent.
LIGHTHOUSES. In July, 1850. the lighthouse establishment of the United
States numbered 315 lights in lighthouses, and 40 floating-lights, attended
in all by 346 keepers, exhibiting over 3,000 lamps, and supported at an
annual expense of ^141,153.
LITHOGRAPHY. A process for printing in oil by difierent stones, according
to the colors required, was invented by Mr. Kronheim, of Pater noster Row,
London, in March, 1851.
LOCKS. Mr. Chubb, of London, stated before the Society of Arts in Jan.,
1851, that the basis of all security in modern locks is found in the old
Egyptian, the original of the patent tumbler lock. — Illustrated News. His
lock, however, was picked by the celebrated Mr. Hobbs, of New-York, during
the session of the Great Exhibition, 1851. Day and N"e well's 'parautoptic
lock, exhibited in the Crystal Palace, is susceptible of 1,307,647,368,000
changes ; the time required for effecting the whole of which would consume
13,000.000 years.
LOTTERIES. The Maryland Convention of 1851 passed a resolution abolish-
ing all lotteries and their attendant evils, after April, 1859.
MANHATTAN. This term, as apphed to the island on which the city of New-
York stands, is taken from the name given by the Indians to the original
Dutch settlement in 1621, and means ''the place luhere they (the Indians) all
got drunk .'"
MANUFACTURES. The increase of manufacturing industry in Great Britain
in sixty years, is shown by the following table of the raw materials used in
that kingdom :
Tn 1790. In 1849.
Wool, .... 3,245.352 lbs. 76,756.183 lbs.
Silk, 1,253,415 " 6,881,861 "
Hemp, .... 592,306 « 1,061,273 "
Flax, 257,222 " 1,806.786 "
Cotton, .... 30,574,374 " 758,841,650 »
See " Cotton," «&c.
MARYLAND. Tlie new Constitution of this State went into operation on 4th
July, 1851, and from its general acceptance promises greatly to increase the
prosperity of the State. Population by the census of 1850, 582,506, of which
89,800 were slaves.
MASKS. Before the introduction of females on the British stage, masks were
used in the representation of female characters, by the male actors who
were no longer youthful. — Knight'' s Shakspeare. Thej'' were also employed
by female actors in the early stage of the English drama, and also by women
when travelling. Miss Livingston, of New-York, who married Nicholas
Bayard, about 1740, when she 'rode out in cold weather, or went sleighing,
wore a black velvet mask, with a silver button or mouthpiece to keep it on.
MASSACHUSETTS. The polls, population, and valuation, for the last four
decennary terms, are as follows, viz, :
Polls. Population. Vfilnntion.
1820, - - - 122,715 - - 523,287 - - $153,644,265
1830 - - - 150,691 - - 610,408 - - 208,908,107
1840 - - - 185.908 - - 718,592 - - ^ 299,878,327
1850, - - - 245,142 - - 994,665 - ■ 597,936,969
The relative increase of polls, population, and property, during the above
periods, omitting fractions, is as follows :
22 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [mET
Polls. Population. Valuation.
1820 to 1830, - - 28,000 . - 47.000 - - $55,000,000
1830 to 1840, - . 35,000 - - 108,000 - - 91,000,000
1840 to 1850, - - 57,000 - - 255,000 - - 299,048,666
In this State systematic beggary is unknown. The poor are provided for by
law, and for this purpose not less than 204 comfortable alms-houses are
sustained at the public charge. The number of persons relieved or sup-
ported as paupers, in the year 1850, was 25.981, and of these 12 334 were
foreigners, the larger portion being from Ireland. The weekly cost of each
pauper in alms-houses was SlOSi ; out of alms-houses, S0*98. Estimated
value of pauper labor in alms-houses, S'17,966. Of paupers by reason of
idiocy, the number was 969 ; while that from intemperance in themselves,
or through others, was not less than 14,674. Number of public schools in
this State, 1850, was 3.878 ; scholars in summer, 176,344 ; in winter schools,
194.403. Male teachers, 2 442 ; female do., 5,985. Average expense each
scholar in Massachusetts is nearly $8. Value of public school-houses in
18i8 wa-^ S2 750,000, of which amount S2 200.000 had been expended since
1838. Criminal prosecutions in 1850 were 3,764, of which the convictions
were 1.907. Of the banks in Massachusetts, there are 29 in Boston, and 97
in various parts of the State ; cash capital, independent of other resources,
S36 925 050; circulation, 817,005,826. The commerce and manufactures of
Mass. have advanced 100 per cent, in the last ton years — Am. Al. ; the im-
portations more than doubled, and its tonnage has increased more than 50
per cent. The wealth of Boston and its suburbs, in 1840, was S120 000.000 ;
in 1850 it had increased to nearly S'270 000,000. The annual value of the
boots and shoes manufactured in Massachusetts is estimated at ij^ 18, 000, 000.
MEDICINE. The first medical school established in the U. S. was commenced
in Philadelphia in 1708; this was closed during the first war with Great
Britain. First medical degrees conferred were by King's College, New
York, 1769. Thatcher's "Brief Guide on Small Pox and Measles," Mass.,
1677. was the first medical work published in this country. Inoculation for
small pox introduced by Dr. Z. Boylston of Boston, 1677, having first ex-
perimented on his own son ; Dr. B. Van Beuren first practised inoculation in
New- York. The first recorded post~7nortfm examination in America was
that of Gov, S'.oughter, by Dr. Johannes Kutbyl and five other physicians
of New-York, in 1691 ; and the first medical meeting was held in New
Brunswick, N. J., lim.~Lit. World.
Medical Slndents.fall Session, N. Y., 1851.
Coll. Physicians ami Surgeons, .... 1Q7
University of New- York, - - - - - 179
N. Y. Medical College, 69
445
Med. Gaz.
At the Female Med. College, Philadelphia, June, 1851, there were forty
students. Doctor or Doctress Elizabeth Blackwell practises at this present
(for females and children) in N. York city.
MESMERISM. In 1776, F. A. Mesmer of Germany first made public his doc-
trine of a subtle fluid produced by planetary influence acting on the nervous
system of the animal frame. Franklin and Dr. Bailly exposed the futiUty
of animal magnetism, which theory, however, has been lately revived, both
in this country and Europe. Among others who have made themselves
conspicuous in favoring this absurdity, is the celebrated Miss Martineau.—
Hay r In.
METEORIC Stone falls at Charlotte, N. C, accompanied by explosion. &€.,
Oct. 31, 1849.
METHODISTS. The general '* Book Concern" of this body was first estab-
mor] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 23
lished at Philadelphia in 1800, — Ezekiel Cooper, Agent ; it was subsequently
removed to New-York. The unfortunate dissension between the Northern
and Southern Methodist Confi ranees on the question of Slavery was brought
to trial in New- York in May, 1851, and by decision of Judge Nelson, of U.
S. Circuit Court, in Nov. of that year, judgment was given confirming the
full right and title of the Southern Conference to their proportion of the
profits of the General Book Concern, the value in 1845 being ;i^750,000. The
case will be moved to the Superior Court.
MEXICO. Gen. Arista inaug^urated president of republic of Mexico, Jan.
15. 1851. The initial bouiidaiy point between Mexico and the U. States, es-
tablished on the right bank of the Rio Grande, in 32*^ 22' nortb latitude, by
the American and Mexican commissioners, and a monument recording
same, erected April 24. 1851. Hi'rrera, ex-president of Mexico, dies in that
city May 15. 1851. Gen. Carvajal's insurrection in Northern Mexico — his
attack on Metamoras Oct. 20, 1851
MEXICAN WAR with the United States. Mr. Corwin, Sec. of the Treasury,
estimat(;s the direct and indirect cost of this war to the U. S. at nearly
S3UO,000 000.
MICHIGAN. The population of this state in 1850 was— Whites, 393 156;
Free colored, 2.547 ; Federal Rep. Population, 395,703. — Census Returns.
MILITIA, U. S. The Army Register for 1851, gives the aggregate number of
the militia force throughcmt the States as 2,006 456, this does not include
Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, from which
there are no returns. Of the volunteer companies included in the militia re-
turns, New-York city furnishes 170, each of which averages 60 members,
MILITARY BOUNTY Land Bhj., passed the House of Representatives, U. S.
June 25, 1850. It gives 160 acres of land for 12 months' service in the war
of 1812 and the Mexican and Indian wars.
MILITARY, U. S. The number of officers, non-commissioned officers, privates,
&c., attached to the army of the U. States on 1st January, 1851, was 10,334.
MINNESOTA. The first Territorial legislature closes its session of sixty days
Nov. 1. 1849. Tlie census returns show the population of this territory in
1850 to be— white, 6.038; colored, 39— total, 6 077; farms in cultivation,
157 ; manufactories producing annually Ji|;500 and upwards, 5.
MISSISSIPPI. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River;
the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists; Marquette
spells it '-'• " Mlssoissippij ;'' Hennepin " McschasipV Sape is river, running
water; the prefix means '-'great,^' ■big J'' — Christ. Rev.
The Population of Mississippi in 1850 was :
North District,
Soutli "
Totals, .... 300,009 311,568
The Mississippi Legislature in the session of 1850 abolished the common-
law form of pleadings, for a system similar to that of chancery or civil law,
and appointed a special officer for making up the *' Mississippi Reports,"
to the exclusion of all other reporters. These reports are in future to be
printed by the State only. — Avi. Almanac.
MORMONS. The number of Mormons in England and U. S. early in 1851
was estimated at 300.000. Twenty-five hundred left the former country
for Deseret in the spring of that year.— il/Ae;t'm. In April, 1831. their elders
and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and
Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses; also at Paris. Their
24 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [NEW
celebrated " Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was
really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of
some ancient mounds in Ashtabula co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been
borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it and subsequently printed
the same. — Allien. A copy of this " Bible" in the English, French, and
Danish languages, was intended for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, 1851.
MORTALITY, New-York. Deaths— 4.042 men~-3,683 women— 6,798 boys,
and 5 234 girls — total, 19,755. Greatest mortality in a single month in July
when 2,364 persons deceased ; lowest in June, when 1,385 died. Deaths in
1850, were 16,978 — increase 1851, 2,777. — iV. Y. Commercial.
MOUNTAINS, FORMATION OF. Prof Gorini of the University of Lodi, in
Oct. 1851, by a remarkable process, illustrated the formation of mountains
by melting a secret composition, and allowing it gradually to consolidate,
during which process portions continue to ooze up in gradual elevations,
forming ranges and chains of hills exactly corresponding in shape with
those which are found on the earth. — Lnn. Times.
MUSIC. Jenny Lind, the " Swedish Nightingale " gave her first concert in
America at Castle Garden. New York, 1850. The proceeds of her 100 sub-
sequent concerts in the U. States and Havana, Avere estimated at S800,000.
MURDER. John W. Webster, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard College, ex-
ecuted in Boston for the murder of Dr. Geo. Parkman (Nov. 1849,) August
30. 1850.
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, N. Y. Instituted 1826; number of
members originally limited to 85; but now increased to 50, — Art Jour.
NAVY, OF THE U. S. The Naval power Sept. 1, 1851, consisted of the Penn-
sylvania, 120 guns ; 10 Ships of line, 74 guns each ; the Independence Razee,
54 guns ; 12 Frigates of 1st class, 44 guns each ; 2 Frigates of 2d class, 36
guns each ; 21 Sloops of war, 20 guns each ; 1 do. 18 guns, and 4 of 16 guns
each ; 4 Brigs of 10 guns each : 3 Schooners, 4 guns ; 5 Steam Frigates,
30 guns (including the Mississippi) ; the Powhatan— number of guns not
returned ; 3 Steamers 1st class 7 guns ; 3 do. 2d class 8 guns, and 4 do. num-
ber of guns not returned, with 5 store Ships and Brigs, 24 guns.
NAVY, BRITISH. The Naval force of .the United Kingdom for 1850, compris-
ed six hundred and seventy-one Ships of war, either in ordinary or commis-
sion, varying from two to one hundred and twenty guns each ; of this number
one hundred and seventy-eight are armed Steamers, of one hundred to three
hundred horse-power engines, constructed on the most approved principles
for active sea service. This fleet, the largest of any maritime power on the
globe, employs in time of peace 35,000 to 50,000 able-bodied seamen, 2,000
strong lads, and 13,000 royal marines.
NEW ENGLAND. " In 1630 the whole of New England contained but 300 in-
habitants, which, in a century afterwards, had increased to 160 000, and may
at this day be given at nearly three millions. The capital of New England,
in 1720, contained 12,000 inhabitants; in 1820, 43,000; in 1830, 78,000; and
in 1850, 135,000. Boston, in 1789, was proud of two stage coaches, which
employed twelve horses ; she was prouder still in 1800, oi' twenty-five stage
coaches, which employed one hundred horses ; in 1847, these twenty-five
coaches had risen into two hundred and fifty coaches and omnibuses, em-
ploying one thousand six hundred horses, without taking into account seven
railways, which provide, daily, accommodation for 7,000 passengers. The
first newspaper published in the colonies, was issued in 1704, ill this
same city of Boston, and a third newspaper published in the same town, in
1721, under the title of the Nev^ England Courant, could not maintain itself,
though it had very warm advocates, being supported by the Hell-fire Club ;
new] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 25
at this moment there are in Boston sixteen daily news-papers, with a
circulation of* 36,000 copies, and fifty weekly news-papers with a circu-
lation of 223,000 — to say nothing of semi-weekly papers, and semi-monthly
papers, and monthly, quarterly, and annual publications. — Extract from Sir
H. Bulwer's Speech before N. Eng. Society, Dec. 22, 1850.
NEW HAMPSHIRE. The returns of the 7th census ( I860) show a population
of 317,997 ; in 1840 it was 284,574 ; gain in 10 years 33,423, being an increase
of nearly 12 per cent.
1850, 1851,
Number of School Districts reported, 2,167 2,222
" Scholars in winter schools, .... 77,806 73,-301
" " summer " 61,498 58,328
Whole amount raised for District Schools, - - «174,517 66 $179,065 46
Increase above preceding year, .... 15,087 28 4,547 80
Number of Banks in N.Hampshire is 22; cash capital independent of other
resources, S2,501,000; circulation S2,012,837» — Am. Almanac.
NEW JERSEY. The total free population of this State, according to the 7th
census (1850) was 488,552, viz 466,283 white and 22,269 colored ; of the old
slave population but 119 remaining. The number of children receiving pub-
lic instruction in 1851 was 75.245, at the average cost per quarter of S2 10
each pupil. The appropriations and receipts for school purposes was S152,-
578 62; amount expended ^99.560 13; whole available school fund was
$377,929 85.— ^m. Almanac. Transit duties levied upon merchandise and
passengers, for the .year 1850, and paid into the State Treasury was S75.511
— viz., Delaware &Raritan Canal S20.289; Camden & Amboy Rail-Road <fc
Transportation Co., S41,421 ; New Jersey R. R. & Trans'n Co., $13,261,
NEWSPAPERS. The newspaper press of a country may be regarded as the
surest index to its intellectual condition. The census of 1850 shows the
number of newspapers in the United States to be 2,800, of which 2,000 are
published in the free, and 800 in the slave states. About 850 are Whig ;
750 Opposition ; 70 Freesoil or anti-slavery ; 20 Agricultural ; 40 Temper-
ance ; 200 Religious ; and 870 neutral and miscellaneous. New York state
publishes 443 papers ; Pennsylvania 328 ; Massachusetts 212 ; and Ohio
300. — Census Returns. In the Austrian dominions it appears there are but
10 newspapers ; 24 in Spain ; 20 in Portugal ; 30 in Asia ; 14 in Africa (1) ;
65 in Belgium ; 85 in Denmark ; 90 in Russia and Poland; 300 in Prussia ;
and 320 in other Germanic States. Of the London papers it is stated that the
daily circulation of the Times, in 1846, was 28,594 ; other papers 38,999 ; but
in 1850 the Times had run up to 38,019 daily copies, while the circulation of
all the other papers was only 24,116. The London Illustrated News, in 1849;
rose to a weekly circulation of 69,000. Of the newspapers published in the
United Kingdom, 159 are issued in London ; 222 in the English provinces ;
110 in Scotland ; and 102 in Ireland. The duty paid for the different
advertisements in these, in 1850, was .£163,038 ! In July, 1851, Burgess, an
Englishman, issued the first number of a Persian Journal, with all the fea-
tures of a general newspaper, under the patronage of the prime minister of
that country.— iV, Y. Tribune.
NEW YORK City. The census of 1850 shows a population of 517849, being an
increase in ten years of 205,000, or about 66 per cent ; including Brooklyn,
Williamsburg, and other suburbs, properly belonging to New York, the en-
tire population was about 700,000. The manufacturing capital employed in
this city, annually, according to the last census, is S105 218 308. Number of
children in the Public and Ward schools in 1850, was 105,378. Dreadful acci-
dent in 9th Ward school Nov. 20, 1851, through a false alarm of fire, when 43
children were killed, and 59 injured ; there were 1,800 children in the school
at the time of ftie accident, under the superintendence of 24 teachers!
2
26 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [PAT
NEW MEXICO. This Territory, according to the census returns. 1850, has a
white population of 61 G32 ; colored 17. Farms in cultivation 3J50; man-
ufactories producing annually $500, and upwards, 20.
NEW ORLEANS. Population shown by the census returns, 1850 was 119,-
285. — Am. Alma. Number of deaths, same year was 7 819, of which 1,389
were by cholera. The St. Charles Hotel destroyed by lire. Mar. 18 1851.
NICARAGUA. General Munoz, ex-minister of war. deposes President Pineda
and his cabinet at Leon ; sends them prisoners to Tig-re Islands, and elects
Albaunaz president. The senate assemhles at Grenada, and elects Monte-
negro president, Aug. 4, 1851. Steamer Prometheus arrives at New York
from San Juan, the Atlantic terminus of the Nicaragua route. Aug. 12, 1851,
then for the first time opened.
NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The Investigator and Enterprise, Sir James Ross's
vessels, arrive in London, on their return from their fruitless Arctic Expe-
pedition. Nov. 11. 1849. Another expedition, under Ca{)tains Coliinson and
McClure, sails from Woolwich, Jan. 11, 1850. Another, under Capt Penny
and Capt. Stewart, from Peterhead, April 13. 1850. Another under Capt.
Austin. 4 vessels from Greenhithe, May 4, 1850. Another, under Sir John
Ross, from Lochyran, May 24, 1850. — Sue Arclic Expedition.
OHIO. The total population of this state in 1850, was 1,980.408; viz , white
1,956; colored 24,300. Farms in cultivation 143 887; manufacturing es-
tablishments producing annually over $500, 10 550 ; houses 386 098. — Cen-
sus Returns. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amoimted to 30.000 000 bushels,
April, 1851, completed 62 years since the tirst band of white settlers entered
Ohio.
OCEANS. Edrisi, the Nubian, writing in the 12th century of the Atlantic,
says: '-There is no mariner who dares to enter into its deep wateis, or if
they have done so, keep along its coasts, fearful of departing from tlietn."
— Irvins^'s Columbus. Lieut. Goldshorough (U. S. shi}) Saratoga), in Dec , 1850,
found soundings in the Atlantic 128° 21' south, at 3^ miles ; but Sir James
Ross in 1848, in lat. 15° 3' south, long. 26° 11/, run out 4.600 fathoms, or
nearly 5^ miles, without finding a bottom ; this appears to be the greatest
depth satisfactorily obtained. In May. 1851, Lieut. Rodgers. U. S. navy, in
Gulf Stream, 30 miles S W. from Key West, sounded at 730 fathoms; but at
another point at a depth of 3 000, the line was cut off, ' supposed by a sword-
fish." — Tribune. The entire surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions
of square miles, the Pacific covering 78 millions, the Atlantic 25 millions,
and the Mediterranean one million. The waters of the Mediterranean and
the Red Sea are exactly on a level. — Tribune. Mr. Stephenson (Brit. Ass,,
1850), from actual experiuK^nt, found the force of the wavt'S is 1^ ton per
square foot, in the German Ocean ; and nearly double that force in the waves
of the Ail'dntic. —Hause/iuld Words. Dr. Scoresby (Brit. Ass., 1850), stated
the height of the waves of the Atlantic, from the trough to the crest, to be
43 feet, and their average velocity a fraction over 32 miles an hour ; thus
confirming Mr. Scott Russel's observations in 1845.
OMNIBUSES, (fcc. The number licensed to carry passengers, in New-York
in the year 1851, was 586 ; hacks 320. — Marshal's Returns.
PARLIAMENT (British). The House of Commons first meets in the new
building at Westminster, May, 1850. Baron Rothscliild, a Jew, claims his
seat as member elect for London, but his claim is postponed, August 5, 1850.
Mr. Alderman Salomons. Jewish member for Greenwich, refused his seat in
the Commons, July 18, 1851, the question still in abeyance.
PATENTS. American. The number of patents granted by the office at Wash-
ington, from 1790 to 1850 inclusive, is 16,296.
POS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD^S PROGRESS, 1850-51. 27
PENCILS. Gessner first describes the " pencil of plumbago in wooden handles,"
in 1565.— (P<9S5z75.) Pettus (Fleta Minor) speaks decidedly of pencils " in-
closed in fir or cedar," in 1683. M. Conte, of Paris, made great improve-
ments in 1795. Mordan's " ever-pointed pencil'" was patented about 1820.
Philip Crabbe, the first manufacturer of lead pencils by machinery, died in
his lOOth year, in London, May, lSbl.-—Triljime.
PENS, STEEL. The largest factors are Gillott's, of Birmingham, who em-
ploy nearly 1,000 hands for the conversion of2i tons of steel into 35,000
gross of pens weekly ! In 1820-1 the first gross of tiiree-slit pens was sold
wholesale for £7 4s. ; in 1851 a superior article could be furnished at 3s. 6d.
to 5s per gross, while the commonest pens can be rendered at iwopence'the
gross! Gillott's house exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851, a giant pen of
thirty-six inches in length, and close to this was a small glazed frame con-
taining 15,840 steel pens, the whole weighing only one ounce. The greatest
number of these pens are sent to the United States. — Illus. Ncv's.
PENNSYLVANIA. The population exhibited by the 7th census, 1850, was
2 311681; the banking capital, $18,675 484 14; tax on dividends,
$^153,877 14; tax on corporation stocks, S"7^^^^08 86; ratio of tax. 12; in
1849 the ratio was 14. — Herald. Total revenue for year ending Novem-
ber 30. 1851. was S5, 645,678 74; total expenditures during the same period
S'4,780 667 53.
PHILADELPHIA. U. S. A. By the census of 1850 this city and suburbs con-
tains 406 353 inhabitants. Increase in ten years, 148 221, or about 57 per
cent. In the city and county there are 258 [)ublic schools, with 45 3^3 child-
ren, under the instruction of 81 male and 616 female teachers. The total
school expenditure for the year 1850 was S'332,433 21, beting an average of
S6 46 each child. Manufacturing capital of this city in 1850. according to
census returns, was 833,000,000, and the annual products $61, 000 000.
Duties received at custom-house, 1851, Jan. to Nov. inclusive, $3,532,982,
against $3 213.031 in corresponding period of preceding year. — Tribune.
PLANK ROADS. The first plank road in Canada was laid down in 1836, and
in New-York in 1837. Plank roads in operation. Jan. 1, 1851 :
Canada. New- York.
Number of roads, .... — 19
Number of miles, .... 442 2,106
AveraL^e cost per mile, . - . §1,750 ^l.K^S
Total cost, $773,500 $3,860,292
Very nearly four millions of dollars have been expended in New-York upon
these roads, and the resulting advantages are immense. The Troy and
Lansingburg road pays 10 per cent, dividend, which is generally believed to
be the case with all the others, with the exception of the Utica and Bur-
lington, which yields 20 per cent. None of the stocks are in the market. —
Kingsjord.
POSTAGE, Gt. Britain. The gross revenue of the Post Office for the year
ending Jan. 5, 1850, was ^2 213.149; the cost of management, £1,307,248;
the net revenue, after deducting charges other than management, was
je840,787 [An ample proof of the advantage of cheap postage.) The num-
ber of Money Orders issued was 4,248,891. the representative value,
je8,]52,643. The value of commission on the issue was i;70,670; the
amount of expeuvses incurred was £70,248. The total amount of the charge
for packet service in the year was £748,296. The value of bank notes,
checks, and money orders found in letters returned to the Dead Letter
office, for the two years ending 5 Jan., 1851, amounted to £1.245,158 8s. 6d.,
the whole of which was regularly entered and indexed, and is returnable
to the claimant, on proving his title to same.
28
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
[pop
POPULATION, United States of America, viz. :
1850.
1840.
Increase per cent, since
BTATES.
TOTAL POPULATION.
POPULATION.
1840.
Whites.
Slaves.
Whites.
Slaves.
Whites.
Maine . - - -
583,088
501,798
....
about 16 pr. ct.
New Hampshire -
317,864
284,574
1
" 11 "
Massachusseis
994,271
737,699
....
•' 35 "
Connecticut
370,604
309,978
17
" 20 "
Rhode Island
147.555
...
]as,830
5
" 36 "
Vermont
313,466
291.918
« 7 «
New York -. -
3,090,022
2.428.621
4
« 28 «
New Jersey
489,333
22.
373.306
974
u 31 «
Pennsylvania
2,311,681
...
1,724,033
64
" 34 «
Ohio ....
1,977,031
1,519,467
3
u 24 "
Michigan
395,703
...
212,267
....
" 86 "
Wisconsin -
304,226
.. .
30,945
11
" 884 "
Indiana
9aS,734
685,866
3
« 44 it
Illinois - . - .
a58,598
476,183
331
« 77 "
Iowa - . . .
192,122
43,112
....
" 347 "
California -
200,000
" •• "
SLAVE STATES.
1850.
1840.
Increase
per cent, sir
ce
De-
•TATES.
TOTAL POPULATION.
TOTAL POPULATION.
1840.
crease.
Pop. VVliites.
Slaves.
I'op.
78,085
Whites.
Slaves.
Total.
Whites.
Sla.
W.
S.
Delaware
91,535: 89,246
2,289
75,480
2,605
17p.ct.
19p. ct.
U
Dis. Columbia
5l,687i 48,000
3,687
43,712
39,018
4,694
18 "
19 "
.. . .
22
Maryland
5S3.035 492,667
90.368
470,019
380,282
89,737
24 "
30 »
l>^
..
Virginia
1,421,081 948,055
173,026
1,239,797
7W.810
148,987
15 »
20 "
bi
..
N. Carolina -
8(58,903 580,491
28S.412
753,419
507,602
24,5,817
^l^ u
14^ "
VJ
S. Carolina -
668,469 283,544
.•}84,92.5
594,398
267,315
327,0^3
13 "
6 »
18
Georgia
878.6;i3 515,669
362,966
691,39'^
410,448
280,944
27 "
26 "
29
.,
Florida -
87,387: 48,046
39,341
54,477
28,760
25,717
59 "
66 «
bO
Alabama
771,659 428,765
342,894
590,756
337,224
253,532
31 "
27 "
36
Mississippi -
592,853 292,434
300,419
375,651
180,440
195.211
58 "
62 "
b4
Louisiana -
500,763 269,956
230.807
352,411
183,959
168,452
42 «
47 "
37
..
Texas -
187,403 131,057
53,346
Arkansas
209.640 162,6,58
46,982
97,574
77,639
19,935
116 «
111 "
135
..
Missouri
682,043 594,621
87,422
383,702
325,462
58.240
77 »
83 «
50
..
Tennessee -
1,002,625 763,164
2.39,461
829,210
646,151
183.0,59
21 "
18 "
31
..
Kentucky -
1,001,496 779,728
221,768
779,828
597,570
182,258
29 "
31 «
20
••
Territories.
Minnesota -
6,192
N. Mexico -
61,632
Oregon
20,000
Utah -
25.000
1
RECAPITULATION.
STATES.
Total Free
Population.
Slaves.
Representative
PopuUition.
Free States
Slave State.''
District and Territories -
13,533,328
6,393,757
160,824
119
3,175,783
3,687
13.,533,399
8,299,226
20,087,909
3,179 589
21,832,625
Total free population
20,087,909
3,179,589
blaves
23,267,498
93,702
*,' The highest rates of increase in the Free States for the last 10 years were in Wisconsin,
884 per ct. ; Iowa, 347 per ct. ; Michigan, 86 per ct. ; Illinois, 77 per ct. The highest in the
Slave States were, in Arkansas^ whites, 111 per ct. ; Missouri, whites, 83 per ct. ; Florida, 66
pro] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 29
per ct. I Mississippi, 62 per ct. The highest increase of Slaves was in Arkansas, 135 per ct. ;
Mississippi, 54 per ct. ; Missouri, 50 per ct. The lowest rate in the Free States was, in Ver-
mont, 7 per ct. ; New Hampshire, 11 per ct. The lowest in the Slave States of whites, was
in South Carolina, 6 per ct. ; North Carolina, 14j^ per ct.
In North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Arkansas, the Slaves have in-
creased more than the Whites. In all (he other Slates the proportion of Slaves has diminished,
especially in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky.
General ratio of increase of the whole United States.
From 183010 1840, white, 34-72 - - - Colored, 23*81
" 1840tol8r>0 " 38-20 ... « 26-16
The centre of Representative population in 1790, was 46 miles north and 22 east of Washing-
ton, in Baltimore county, Maryland. In 1800, the centre was 64 miles north and 30 west of Wash-
ington, in Adams county, Pennsylvania. In 1820, it was 47 miles north and 71 west of Wash-
ington, in Morgan county, Virginia. In 1830, it was 43 miles north and 108 west of Washing-
ton, in Marion County, Virginia. By these calculations, the accuracy of which we see no rea-
son to question, the representative power, in its rapid and accelerated movement westward,
has for fifty years kept nearly the same parallel of latitude. In that time it has moved 10 miles
south, and 182 miles westward. The advance westward was as follows :
From 1790 to 1800 - - 13 miles. I From 1820 to 1830 - - 37 miles.
" 1800 to 1810 - . 39 " I " 1830 to I&IO - - 52 «
« 1810 to 1820 - - 41 « I
The calculation is that the census of 1850 will show the centre of representative population
in the State of Ohio.
PHYSICIANS were formerly ecclesiastics. It was during the nunciate of
Cardinal d'Etouteville in France, in 1452, that he obtained permission for
them to marry. — Menage. Sir WilHam de Butts, physician to Henry VIII.,
and mentioned as such by Shakspeare. was paternal ancestor of Mrs. Sher-
wood, the popular authoress, who died in Sept., 1851.
POET-LAUREATE (England). Alfred Tennyson appointed Nov., 1850.
POST OFFICE, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849 ; length of mail routes
167,703 miles ; amount of annual transportation, in miles, 42,544 069 ; gross
revenue S4,905,176; net revenue S426 127. In 1850, the length of mail
routes was 178,672 miles; revenue S5.552 971 ; expenditures $'5,212,953;
of which amount the transportation charges were $2,965,786.
The actual receipts during the year ending June 30, 1851, were, - $6,786,493 22
Less amount received for Brit. Postages, 58,626 44
Gross Revenue for the year, ...... $6,727,86678
Being an increase of $999,006 41 over the proper revenues of the preceding
year. The ordinary expenditure of the department, year ending June 30,
1851, was $6,024 566 79. Number of post offices in 36 states, and District
Columbia in 1837, was 19,604.— P. Mas. Gen. Report.
POST OFFICE, New Yoek. For the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, there were
received by steamers and packet ships 577.885 letters and 261,426 papers;
despatched by mail per steamer and ship, during same period, papers
305,448 ; letters 584,038 ; which latter, added to the daily average corre-
spondence, shows the receipt and transmission of nearly 7 millions of letters
by the New York office, in three months. During same quarter, 5 100 official
letters were received, and 3 018 written and despatched. In addition to all
this, 637 Dead Letters were sent to the proper office at Washington, con-
taining property of value, gold dust, bank bills, drafts, &c., in amounts
varying from $1 to $10,000, a large portion of which were returned to the
writers, and the balance remain subject to the order of the proper owners.
Increase of business under the new Jaw is 10 per cent,, and about 75 per cent,
of all letters are prepaid. Number of stamps sold to Sept. 30. was 1,475,555.
PROTESTANTISM in U. S. In the year 1800, the Episcopal Church, the old-
est in the Union, numbered 320 churches ; 260 ministers ; 16 000 members ;
and 7 bishops. In 1850 it had increased fourfold, viz. ; churches. 1,560 ; minis-
ters, 1,504 ; members,73,000; bishops, 28. The congregation lists in 1850, com-
prised 1,971 churches ; 1,687 ministers ; and 197,175 members. The Baptists
enumerated 13, 455 churches ; 9,018 ministers ; and 948,867 members. Pres-
30 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS. 1850-51. [rAI
byterians 4 General Assemblies ; 65 Synods ; 360 Presb5^teries ; 4,578 minis-
ters; 1 014 students and licentiates ; 5 672 churches ; and 490 259 members,
being an increase of eleven-fold since 1800. The various bodies of Methodists
speaking the English language, had, in 1850, 30 000 places of worship ; 6,000
regular preachers ; 8 000 local preachers ; and more than a million and a
quarter of members. The Methodist Protestant churches of German origin,
have 1.827 regular and 559 local preacliers ; 5 356 congregations ; and 333 000
members. The orthodox Friends had 300 congregations. More than 10 000
places of worship were erected in 1849, and SI 67O7I5O were paid in volun-
tary subscriptions to ministers.— />r. Baird before Lon. Evan. Sue. To these
may be appended the following, viz. : —
Churches. Ministers. Members.
Dutch Reformed, 282 299 .33.980
German do. and Lutherans, - - - 1,865 936 233,000
Moravians, ..... 22 24 6,01)0
Unitarians, 245 250 30,000
Universalists, 1,194 700 60,000
Swedenborgians, .... 42 30 5,000
Dr. Baird estimates the number of Protestants in the world as follows : —
Ensland, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, 20,000,000
France, Italy, and Switzerland, 3,000,000
Germany and Holland, - 22, 00,000
Ilunaary and Poland, more than 3,000,000
In the Scandinavian countries, ...... 8.500,'. 00
In Russia, fully 3,000.000
The United States, all of 19,000;000
British America, including West Indies, about . - . . 2,000,000
Australia, Cape of Good Hope, and British possessions in Asia, Africa,
and Polynesia, 500,000
Total, 81,000,000
PRUSSIA. New edict against the press enforced; 37 journals forbidden to
pass through the post. June 5. 1850. The treaty of Olmutz announced at Berlin,
Dec. 3, 1850. May 31. 1851, Inauguration of Ranch's Colossal Equestrian
statue of Frederick the Great. Berlin. In Oct., 1851, the question of the ad-
mission of Jews to judicial office, brought to a partial termination by their
permission to study law. — Illus. News.
PYRAMIDS. M. Persigny, in his " Destination," &c., ''des Pyramides," lately
published in France, appears to have made the nearest approach to the
original design of these structures, viz., that they were intended as a barrier
to arrest the progress of the sands from the desert, and thus to preserve the
cultivated tields of Egypt from destruction. The great Pyramid at Ghizeh
it is stated was first opened by the Caliph Al Mamoun, in the expectation of
discovering treasure ; when the people murmured at their disappointment,
he ordered a sum of money to be secretly deposited, which, on its discovery
by the laborers, is said to have satisfied their cupidity.
RAILWAYS IN THE United States of Ameuica, Jan. 1850.
In Massachusetts, .... 1,889 miles.
In other New England States, - - - 914 ''
In New- York, .... 1.892 «
In other Stales, 5,019 «
Total, - - - 9,714* "
* The estimate on page 154* was erroneous.
Railroad Jubilee at Burlington, Vt., celebrating the union by railroad of the
waters of the lakes and the Atlantic, June 25, 1850. N. Y. & Erie R. Road
opened with appropriate ceremonies, through the entire line, May 14. 1851.
The Hudson River R. Road Co.. organized March, 1847, road completed,
Oct.. 1851. at a cost of $6,666,681.
RAILWAYS, South America. The first Railway in Peru, from Callao to Lima,
six miles, was opened Nov., 1850.
rev]
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
31
RAILWAYS Grkat BRfTAiN. During the year 1849, about 870 miles of new-
railways were openefl in the United Kingdom, viz. : 630 miles in England,
108 in Scotland and 182 in Ireland. Tiie following table gives the progress
of railways since 1814, with the average receipts per mile per week:
Yt^ars. Miles open.
1844 1,770
1815 2,U33
1846 2,<I98
1817 3,375
The number of rail-road passengers in England and Wales in 1846. was 35,-
000,000; in 1850,53 000 000; total United Kingdom in 1850, 66,000,000.—
Herald. The great Russian rail-road, from Moscow to St. Petersburgh, was
opened Nov 18. 1851, the distance 420 miles, being run through in 18 hours,
28^ miles ])er hour. — London Paper.
RELIGIOUS denominations in the United States, according to returns made
1844 — 51, and by estimate.
Fer mile per week.
Yenrs.
Miles open.
4,178
Per mile per week.
JEGI
1&18
J650
£^1
1849
4.983
jei6
£^\
1850
6,075
^44
£36
Najnes. Churches.
Roman Cai holies, - - - 1,073
Pfoicnant Episcopalians, - - - 1,232
Pro.sbyierians, old school, - . 2,675
Presbyicriau'', new school, - - - 1,579
Cumberland Presbyterians, - - 480
Oilier classes of Preshyierians, - - 530
Dutch Reformed, - - - - 282
German Reformed, .... 261
Evan2:etical Lutherans, - - - 1,604 .
Moravians, ..... 22
Methodist E[)iscnpal (Nmnh)
Meihodisi Episcopal (S)Uth)
Methodist Protestant Church,
Reformed Methodists,
Wesleyan Methodists,
German Meihodists, ([Inited Brethren) 1,800
Allbri?hr Methodists (Evangelical As.socialion) 600
Mennoniies. . - . . - 400
Orthodox Congregaiionalists, - - 1,971
Unitarian do. ... 245
Universalists, .... 1,194
Swedenborgians, .... 42
Resniar Hiiptists, .... 8,872
Si.K-Principle Haptists, ,- - " ^1
Sevenih-Uay Baptists, - - - 52
Free Will Baptists, - - - 1,252
Church of God Baptists, - - 97
Reformed Baptists (Campbellites), - 1,818
Christian Bapti--ts(Uiiiiarians), - - 607
Aniimission Baptists, - - - - 2,023
REVENUE, and Expenditures, U. S. A.
REVENUB,
Year ending, June 30, 1848.
Customs, - . $31,757,070
Sale public lands, - 3,328,642
Miscellaneous sources, - 351,037
Loans and balance on hand, 22,957,951
Total,
Civil List,
Foieign Intercourse,
Miscellaneous,
War Department.!
Department of Interior,
Navy,
Public Debt,
Total, $58,241,167
* Including the Indemnity to Mexico.
Ministers.
1,081
1,497
2,0-27
1,489
350
293
299
273
663
24
3,984
Communicants.
1,233.350
67,550
210,306
140,060
50,000
45,500
33,980
70,000
163.000
6,000
662,315
740
7o
600
500
250
250
1,687
250
700
30
5,509
25
43
1,082
128
818
498
897
1819.
$28,316,738
1,688,959
1,038,649
28,742,284
64.313
3,0i)0
20,1)00
15,000
15.000
58,(K30
197,196
30,(MX)
6(>,000
5,000
719,290
3.586
6,243
56,452
10.102
118,618
3,040
64,738
Am.. Almanac, 1852.
1850.
$39,668,686 42
1,859,894 25
1,847,218 33
6,230,914 28
$58,394,700
EXPENDITURES.
$J,647,955
390.897
2.516.216
27,820,163
$59,816,630
$2,865,615
'7,972,832
3.179,192
17,290.936
$49,606,713 28
$3,042,770 07
4,838,594 76
6,958 360 24
9,401,239 16
3,400.524 87
10.670,416
15,429,197
9,869,818
16,453,272
7,923,313 18
7,437,366 41
$57,631,667 $43,002,268 69
t Inc. part of Mexican war.
Rev. from Cus. Ex. ofColl'n.
1835
26,091,829 .... 1,284,997
1837
31,129,275 .... 1,397,469
Van Bur en's Administration.
ia38
20,127,988 .... 1,514,633
1840
15,332,036 .... 1,542,319
1841
20,104,474 .... 1,483,960
Tyler's Adviinistration.
1844
29,560,530 .... 1.807,500
1845
31,144,244 .... 2,066,033
Polk's Administration.
1817
28,305,464 .... 2.099,844
1&48
33,034,275 .... 2,132,636
Taylor's and Fillmore's
Adm inistrat ion.
1849
28,3^16,738
1850
39,668,686
32 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [RUS
Afffirregrate receipts for fiscal year ending June 30, 1850, with balance in
Tre-'asury - - - - - - - - «52,3]2,979 87
Total expenditures to same period, .... 48,005,878 68
Imports for year ending .luno 30, 1851, .... 215,725,130 00
Of which there were in specie, - - . - 4,967,901 00
REVENUE FROM CUSTOMS, and Expenses of Collecting it. U. S. A.
Washington's Administration. Jackson's Administration.
Kev. from Cue. Ex. of CoH'n.
1796 .... $12,681,866 .... $-291,206
1797 .... 13,000,105 .... ^^3,434
Adams's Administration.
1800 .... 16,185,889 .... 440,373
1801 .... 20,828.336 .... 483,772
Jefferson's Administration,
1808 .... 11,349,769 .... 565,238
1809 .... 11,885,380 .... 498,130
Madison's Administration.
1815 .... 39,012.624 .... 476,007
1816 .... a3,577,988 .... 819,038
1817 .... 22,706,514 .... 782,308
Monroe's Administration.
1824 .... 25,726,836 .... 779,739
1825 .... 31,903,875 .... 889,302
Adams's Administration.
1827 .... 28,191,308 .... 889,818
1828 .... 30,187,701 .... 932,093
1^9 .... 27,982,947 .... 1,013,667
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (Great Britain), year e»ding Jan. 5, 1850.
Revenue, je52,951,748. Expenditure, £50,853,622.
RICE. First planted in South Carolina, 1693, and has been grown in that state
every year since that period.
RIOTS. At Philadelphia, between a set of white '' rowdies," called " killers,'*
and negroes. Military called out ; 4 persons killed ; 11 wounded; 4 houses
burned, Oct. 10, 1849. Riot at Hoboken. N. J., between Germans and " short
boy" rowdies from N. York, May 26. 1851. Riot at New Orleans in refer-
ence to Cuban affairs — the Spanish Consul's house attacked, and also those
of the Spanish residents, Aug. 21, 1851. Christiana Treason trial, at Phila-
delphia, Nov., 1851 ; Hanneway and others acquitted Dec. 11, but the mur-
derers of Mr. Gorsuch sent to Lancaster for trial.
ROMAN CATHOLICS. The appointment by the pope of several R. C. bishops
and archbishops in England, causes great excitement in that country, and
an indignant letter from Lord John Russell, the premier, Nov., 1850. A sta-
tistical account from the Vicar General's office at Rome, in April, 1851, shows
the ecclesiastical body of that city to consist of 34 bishops, 1.240 secular and
1,892 regular priests, and 1,467 monks. The schools and seminaries under
their supervision were 321. — See Eccl. States.
ROME. The Council of State at Rome announces a political amnesty, except-
ing from it, however, the late Triumvirate, the chiefs of the assembly, and
the military leaders, and about 13,000 persons supposed to be implicated in
the late movements, Sept. 18, 1849. The pope returns to Rome, April 19,
1850. The total population of Rome in April. 1851, was 170,824. — Vicar GcnHs
Office. In 1848 the population numbered 179,000, and a proportional dimi-
nution is shown in the returns of the other Roman States. — Herald. In Oct.
1851, a mixed commission of cardinals, prelates, merchants, &c., and simple
workmen, was formed by the Pope, for the examination and amendment,
where susceptible, of all corporate laws. — Illus. News.
RUSSIA. The Russian troops repeatedly defeated by the Circassians, June
1851.
RUSSIAN ARMY, 1851. Infantry, 640,384 ; cavalry, 101,902 ; artillery, 41,902 ;
adding to the above the engineer staff, the entire force amounts to 810,000
1850.
1811.
$143,27(3 48
$182,396 75
176,Gr)(3 00
iai;i2<S 00
144,318 00
162,558 19
sha] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 33
effective troops. Other accounts, however, place the actual number of mili-
tary fit ft)r service no higher than 300,000 men, and of these a quarter must
h3 kept in Poland. — Trlcntcr Z:Uiuil'.
SAN FRANCISCO Commerce of. The amount of duties collected at San Fran-
cisco, in the quarter ending: Sept. 30, 1851, as compared with the correspond-
ing quarter of the jear 1850.
July,
August,
September,
$464,250 48 S4o9,082 94
Amount of deposits in September, 1851, on account of unascertained, $72,707 30, being in
addiiioii to above.
Atmuiat o( Bullion reported in manifests at Custom's House was, July, 1851, $3,471,245;
Au2Mst, $3,:{11,I00; Sopt,., .S;M8S,17I ; Total, $10,270,516.
Specie brought into tlie city in freight was, for July, $84,280; August, $61,195; Sept.,
$55,351.
^rnlP9. FcTimlos. Child'n. Total. Left.
Passengers arrived, July, • - 1.729 231 134 2,094 1,697
" " '• August, - 1,886 348 211 2,445 2,097
" " September, - 1,140 140 56 1,336 6,574
Totals, . 5,875 10,368
ExcessofDepartures, Sept. 30, 1851, .... 4^493
10,368
SCPIOOLS, originally kept in the porches of churches. Even so late as 1624,
John Evelyn, then four years old, was taught by " one Frier at the church-
porch of Wotton." — E'^. Diary. The m.^^aed schools, for the instruction of
destitute cliildren in England, originated with John Pounds, a poor cripple
and shoemaker at Portsmouth, who, wliile laboring for his daily sustenance,
found time to instruct the vagabond children of his neighborhood. He died,
"deplored by all his scholars and their relatives, Jan.. 1839." Infant
schools originated about 1780. with Oherlin, pastor of Waldbach (Germ.);
and in England were first ])ut in operation in 1815, by James Buchanan, one
of the masters engaged by Robert Owen at Lanark. Wilde rsi)in's plans
were subsequent to tlie above. — West. RcvievK Sabbath schools were par-
tially in operation previous to the great effort of Mr. Raikes, through the
instrumentality of Miss Walker, a Quaker lady of Tottenham, near London,
and the Rev. Mr. Lindsay and wife, of Catterick, Yorkshire. — Nor. of Scot.
Gaz. TIk; first S. school in the United States is said to have been estab-
lished by Mrs. Archibald Lake, in the stockade in Marietta, Ohio, March,
1791.
SEWING MACHINES. Invented 1818, and brought to general use by ihQ
large tailoring establishments. A machine, with the attention of one girl,
will sew six overcoats per day. — Sci. Am.
SHANGHAI. The population trading with this Chinese port is between
60,000 000 and 80,000,000. The teas grown here are the finest in the world,
and its sup})lies to foreign countries are about seven-eights of the whole pro-
duct exported from the empire. The amount sent forward from China in
1850 is given oiTicially as f )]lows : To Russia, 7,000 000 lbs. ; France,
2 000 000n)s. ; Holland 3.000 000 lbs.; Great Britain, 52 000 000 lbs.; and
the U. States 80 000 000 lbs. ; the total valuation of which shipments can-
not fall far sliort of S^OOOOOOO. The rich silk fabrics of Suchan are brought
to Shanghai, as well as numerous other articles of valuable traffic, all of
which may be more readily purchased here than at Canton, which port re-
ceives its principal export supplies from the former. The importance of
Shanghai as a port of entrance for the American merchant offers incalculable
advantages.— See iV. Y Courier.
2*
34 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESSj 1850-51, [STE
SHIPPING, U. S. A. Vessels built and tonnage thereof in the U. S. : year end-
ing June 30, 1849. Ships, 198; brigs, 148; schooners, 623; sloops and
canal boats, 370; steamers, 206. Total, 1,547. Aggregate tonnage, 3.535 000.
Iron cylinder masts first fitted in a Dutch E. Indiaman at Liverpool, March,
1851. Amount of tonnage of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, for
year ending 30th June, 1850, was entered 2,573,016 ; cleared,. 2 632.78J3. For-
eign tonnage during same period entered, 1,775,623; cleared. 1,728 214.
Number of vessels built in 1850 was 1 360 their total tonnage 272,218 54-95.
In 1851 the total U. S tonnage was 3.772,439, including the whaling vessels,
181.644 ; vessels built, 1.367. Massachusetts total tonnage engaged in foreign
and domestic trade, 694,402; New- York, 1,041.013; Oregon (smallest),
1,063.— ikf. Courier. The clipper ship " Flying Cloud," Capt, Cressy, left
New- York June 2, 1851, and arrived at San Francisco, August 20, making
the trip round Cape Horn in the unprecedented short space of 90 days; the
shortest passage on record. In three days the F. C. made 992 miles.
SLAVE-TRADE. Official returns made to the foreign office in London show
that from the year 1840 to the year 1848, inclusive, 594 vessels, containing
• 37,824 slaves, were captured by the British scpiadron. and 556 of them con-
demned. It has been estimated by the English statician McQueen, that the
loss sustained by slave-traders in conseijuence of the captures or presence
of African cruisers, from the year 1800 to 1847, was £30,240,000.
SLAVERY, U. S. A. . Renewed agitation of this subject caused by the passage
and enforcement of the " Fugitive Slave Bill" (passed by Congress in Aug.,
1850). In several instances, the claims for fugitive slaves are resisted or
defeated in the Northern States, but without serious collision or bloodshed;
Sept., Dec, 1850. By decision of Judge Hoadly, Superior Court, Cin., in
Oct., 1851, this law was pronounced as '• opposed to the spirit and letter of
the Constitution of the U. S." The Bosto/i Post of Dec. 1850, states that
the original Fugitive Slave Law was drafted by Geo, Cabot, of Mass., Nov.
1792, and passed unanimously by the Senate on the 18th of Jan'y following,
by a majority of 41. A Papal Bull of Dec, 1839, prohibits all traflic in
human beings by subjects of Roman Catholic States. — Wade's Brit. Hist.
SPAIN. Queen Isabella personally opens the Cortes in the new palace, in the
Plaza de Cervantes. Oct. 31, 1850. At Madrid, Nov., 1851, the commission-
ers for regulating the liberty of the press refuse to assent to the ministerial
proposition of seizing newspapers before publication.
STAGES. In 1749 there was a daily stage route between Newark, N. J., and
New- York, during the summer months only. The number of i)assengers
in one season was considered large at 3.000; the number of passengers over
the railroad to the same place v,'as, in 1850. 959,000 !
STEAM ENGINE. A patent was granted in England in 1618, for a steam— or
as it is there designated, a "fire-engine, for taking ballast out of rivers and
for raising fresh water." It is supposed to have been an invention brought
from Italy, where it is stated to have been anteriorly used. Brancas,"an
Italian philosopher, published at Rome, in 1629, a book on the subject.—
Wade's Brit. Hist, A complete steam-engine, weighing only three fourths
of an ounce, and capable of full motion, was finished and intended for exhi-
bition at the Crystal Palace by an ingenious mechanic of Saddleworth,
Yorkshire, in Feb., 1851.— f//?t.s. News. The tubular boiler was invented by *
Col. John Stevens, Hoboken, N. J., 1805.
STEAM NAVIGATION, U. S. A. The steamer Atlantic, 3.500 tons. ihQ first
of the Collins' line, sailed for Liverpool, from New York, April 27, 1850.
Steam communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool opened |by the
" City of Glasgow." arrived at Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1851. The first steamer
sug]
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
35
that ever crossed the Atlantic was the " Savannah." 350 tons, from Savannah,
Geo., to Liverpool, which port she reached 20th July, 1810. — Manvade^s
Com. Report. The first steamboat that ascended the Mississippi was com-
manded by Capt. Henry M. Shreeve, who subsequently invented the steam
snag-boat; he died in 1851. The number of steamboats on the Western
waters in 1850 was estimated at 575, investing a capital of S60,000,000,
and employing 15,000 hands. The annual cost to the U. S. government of
the Steam Mail Service in 1850. was distributed as follows : — Collins' line,
New York and Liverpool ^385,000; Ocean Steam Navigation Company,
New York and Bremen, S200.000 ; do., do., do., do.. New York and Havre,
S150 000; New York, Havana and New Orleans, S290.000; Panama and
Oregon line, S199,000; Charleston and Havana line, ^50.000.— Total,
SI 274,000. The first steamer on Lake Nicaragua began its trips January,
1851. Duty paid by Cunard steamers at Boston, in 1847. was SI 199 971 78;
in 1850, SI, 322.383 30. Marine Steam Force of Great Britain in 1851 was—
147 ships, including 3 in Canada, and 32 iron steamers, 11 ranging from
1,547 to 1,980 tons. A divScovery in 1851 of a work in the archives of Venice,
of a treatise on " Navigation by Fire," by M. Gautier, Mem. Roy. Soc. Paris,
shows that the professor's plans for steam navigation were exhibited by him
to the Venetian Republic in 1756.
STEAMBOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation,
gives the following aggregate of the number of steamboats built in the
United States since 1824 — twenty-five years, in periods of five years each :
From 1824 to 1829, - - - 194 | From 1844 to 1849, - - - 960
1829 to 1834,
18;^ to 1839,
1839 to 1844,
304 I
501 I
522
2,492
Total,
Two-thirds of these were built in the West, one-sixth of them in Ohio.
STEAM AND POWDER EXPLOSIONS. The most fatal accident of this
nature in 1849 was that of the steamboat Louisa, at N. O.. Nov. 15. when
60 persons were killed and 92 wounded and missing. Daring 1850 the
number of steamboats lost in the Western waters was 53. and 64 seriously
injured. Nearly 700 persons lost their lives, and SI 500,000 of property
was destroyed. Some of the most prominent accidents by explosion in
1850 and 1851, were :—
FACTOKY OR VKSSEL.
DATE,
i8r)0.
November 7,
" 10,
» 23,
« 26,
December 13,
" 17,
« 18,
" 20,
1851.
March 2,
February 23,
March 1.5,
" 27,
Au^u.st 2,
September 8,
Steamer Telegraph,
Sliip of war, Volnev,
Am. Sieamcr Resolute,
Ste. Antoinette Douglas,
Am. S:camer Columbus,
Steamer Anglo Norman,
Souih America,
Knoxville,
Fashion,
Oregon,
Ferry-boat (many injured),
Victoria Coalpit,
C'Uton mill,
Di^^tillerv,
B;ilIoon,' 1 mile hish, exploded near Lon-
don : the 4 pa^senuers providentially
escaped v^^ithout serious injury.
" 21, Steamer .farkson (35 injured),
" 25, J3rilliant,
SUGAR. A hundred years ago the Jesuits brought a few bundles of cane from
Hispaniola, and planted them in the second municipality of New Orleans.
WHERE.
LIVES
LOST.
Near Newcastle, Del
., J5
Near Brest,
10
New- York,
5
Tate's Shoals,
30
Oil' Point Lookout,
7
New Orleans,
—
Near Bayou Sara,
40
New Orleans,
20
Near Pittsburgh,
many
Mississippi,
21
St. Louis,
15
Scotland,
61
Stockport, Eng.,
14
Harrison, Oiiio,
15
Shawneetown, III.,
7
Bayou Sara, La.,
many.
36 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [UNI
In 1759 the first sugar-mill was erected. In 1840 the number of slaves era-
ployed in the sugar culture was 148,890 and the product was 119.947 hogs-
heads, of 1,000 pounds each, and 600,000 gallons of molasses. — Mobile
Register.
TEA. Quantity imported into Great Britain in 1849, 53 460.751 lbs. The
duty upon it amounted to £5, 471,671. This is an increase of nearly 50 per
cent, over the imports of 1840.
TELEGRAPH, THE SNAIL. The actuality of telegraphic communication
by medium of magnetism in snails, experimentally demonstrated by Prof.
Gregory of Edinburgh, May, 1851.
TELEGRAPH— see " Electric:'
~ TEiMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The benevolent influence of these associations
may be estimated from the fact that the amount of taxation in the state of
New York, in 1850, occasioned by pauperism and crime resulting from in-
temperance, was nearly S2 600,000. and the amount for the entire Union
during that period, and resulting from the evils of intemperance, was over
S16,0l)0 000. The daily expenditure in the 5,000 drinking places in New
York is calculated at over 5^40,000. — Mr. Foster's Speech at Tripler Hall,
March, 1851, — Father Matthew, the " Apostle of Temperance, "after visiting
numerous states in the Union during two years, and administering over
600,000 pledges, sailed for Liverpool in steamer Paciric, Nov. 8, 1851.
TEXAS. The question of the boundary line between Texas and New Mexico,
after much excitement and discussion, is settled by the payment of SIO,-
000,000 by the U. S. to Texas, as indemnity for the territory claimed bv
New Mexico, Sept., 1850. Population in 1850, 188,403, including 53 346
slaves.
TIDES. The highest known are in the Bay of Fundy, Newfoundland, and
the Bay of Tonquin, Cochin China. — Q. /?er., 1819. That of the former
rises 60 feet; the tide at Chepstow (Monmouth, Eng.) rises 70 feet. — Illus.
Ncii's. Tiiat of Baffin's Bay only 4 feet. — Capt. Iio.ss, 1819. Seeds dropped
accidently into the sea in the W. Indies, were subsequently found on the
shores of the Hebrides, — Dr. Walker to Lord Kames. — See Oce ins.
TIGRE (Island of). Central America, seized by Mr. Chatfield, British Consul,
with an armed force, for the '• British Queen," Oct. 17, 1849 ; but the claim
was not enforced, and was settled in the "Nicaragua Treaty," signed at
W.ishington, by Clayton and Bulwer, June, 1850.
TURKEY. Battle between the Turks and Syrians, who had revolted against
the Turkish recruiting system— Syrians defeated with loss of 1,000 men,
1850. Explosion on board the Neiri Schevket, line of battle ship, at Con-
stantinople, 1,000 persons killed, Oct. 23, 1850.
UNION MEETINGS. Gov. Quitman of Miss,, addresses a disunion meeting
with some op[)osition, at Natchez, Oct 7, 1850. A similar meeting in Yazoo
city votes down the resolutions proposed. A convention for amending the
constitution of Indiana, assembles at Indianapolis, Oct. 7. A great union
meeting at Mobile, Ala.. Oct. 8. Convention for amending constitution as-
sembles at Richmond, Va.. Oct. 14. A union festival in compliment to Mr.
Clay, at Lexington, Ky., Oct. 17. A Woman's Rights convention held in
Worcester. Mass.. Oct. 23. A great union meeting at Dayton. Oliio, Oct. 26,
and an immense meeting for like purpose in New York, Oct. 30. Conven-
tion to amend constitution of Maryland, meets in Annapolis. Nov. 4; another
at Concord, N. H., for revising constitution of that state, Nov. 6 ; and one at
Manchester, N. H., Nov. 20. A great union meeting at Philadelphia, Nov.
21. One at Bath. Me., Dec. 16. Convention of Delegates from Southern
wis] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 37
Rights Association, of S. Carolina, at Charleston, May 8; adjourns after
resolving " that with or without co-operation they are for dissolution of the
Union !"
UTAH Territory of U. S. A territorial government provided by Congress,
Sept. 9, 1850. The territory is bounded on the west by CaHfornia, north by
Oregon, east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and south by the
parallel of 37"^ N. The act provides the sum of S5 000 for a library.
VENEZUELA. Gen. J. G. Monagas elected president for four years, Jan.
20. 1851.
VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia,
1850. was S530.000 000, viz. :— Real estate, S278.000 000 ; value of slaves,
8147 000,000; other personal estate, S105 000,000. The returns further
show that nearly 88,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read
nor write! Tiie new Constitution of this state adopted 1851, in the 111th
article has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote
who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commis?ioned nffiar in the ser-
vice oftke United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026
slaves.'
WAMPUM. This material as a representative circulating medium, was bor-
rowed by the people of Plymouth. Mass., from the Manhattan Dutch, and
was found very protitable in their traffic with the eastern Indians, and subse-
quently among the colonists generally. Three of the blackheads and six of
the white, were considered as equivalent to a penny; and for convenience'
sake, they were strung in lengths of certain value from one penny to 5 shil-
lings, in white ; and from twopence to ten shillings in black ; as the quan-
tity in circulation increased, the value depreciated and the number of beads
to the penny was augmented. — See Hlldretk's U. S. America, 1850.
WARS. Modern. Those of the 17th century, were wars of religion; of the
18th century, of conquests and dynasties; of the 19th. of monarchs against
the people. — Berlin Corres. A\ Y. Com. The actual cost of the late Mexi-
can war is estimated at ^300,000 000. The wars of Europe from 1783 to 1815,
are estimated at^lo 000,000 000. The late Hungarian war left 25.000 widows,
and 80,000 orphans of soldiers, almost entirely without food, shelter, or
clothing.
WASHINGTON. D. C. Population in 1810. 8,201, in 1820, 13 248, in 1830
18 827. in 1810, 23 364. in 1850, about 42 000.
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold
at auction in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York, for ^2 300, February
12, 1850.
WESTMINSTER. Archbp. of. Nicholas Wiseman, having been created Car-
dinal by the Pope, is installed as Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westmin-
ster, Nov.. 1850. This, in addition to Dr. Ullathorne's enthrone-nentas R. C.
bishop of Birmingham, in Oct., together with the parcelling out of all Eng-
land into Roman dioceses created great excitement, and petitions from every
quarter of the United Kingdom were addressed to the Queen and govern-
ment, praying their resistance to the •' monstrous usurpation."
WHALE FISHERY. Registered tonnage employed in this branch of commerce,
1850, was 146 016. Fish and sperm oil exported during the year ending
June 30, 1850, S 1,809. 115. The average yield of a polar whale is about
120 barrels oil.
WILLIAM THE CoNauEROR. Inauguration of the statue of this renowned
m )narch at Falaise, Normandy, his native place, Oct. 26, 1851.
WISCONSIN. The population of this State is shown by the census returns,
88 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [ZlN
1860, to be : white. 304,665 ; colored, 626 ; total, 306.191. Farms in cultiva-
tion, 20,177 ; manufactories producino^ annually $500, and upwards, 1,273.
WOOL. The imports of wool into the U. S. for fiscal year 1850, amounted to
$1 681 691 ; and for same period 1851, $3,883,100.— C^^^mr.
WORSHIP, Forms of. The Jews and Quakers wear their hats during worship,
Protestants and Catholics remove them. — The Mohammedans wear their
turbans, but pat off their shoes on entering their mosques, evidently from
their Prox)het's adoption of many of the Jewish customs. — See Exodus m, 6.
It is particularly worthy of remark that the Mohammedans invariably re-
move from their persons all jewelry, and articles of adornment previous to
the commencement of their prayers.
WRECKS. &c. The number of vessels belonging to the U. S. lost during the
year ending June, 1848, was 585; value, $2,021,495; value of cargoes,
$2 501.771 ; total number of lives lost in connection with them, 477. The
Caleb Grimshaw Liverpool and N. Y. packet ship, burnt at sea; 60 passen-
gers lost on a raft ; 339 rescued by Capt. David Cook of Nova Scotia, Nov.
12, 1849.
DATE. NAME OF VESSEL.
16.50.
January 13, Am, Ship Hottinguer,
May 6, Sieamer Commerce,
" 24, Br. Indiaman, Sulimary,
June 2, A barge,
" 17, Am. Sieamer, Griffith, burnt
" 18, Br. Sieamer Orion,
July 18, Brig. Elizabeih,
Ociober4, Am. bark Isaac Mead,
" 7, Br. ship Providence,
Nov. 24, Br. Ship Edmund,
" 28, Propeller Helena Sloman,
Minot's Ledge lighthouse carried away. April 17, '51, and the two assistant
keepers drowned. Steamship Union lost on her passage from San Francisco
to Panama, July 5, '51 ; passengers and gold dust saved.
YACHTING, The Yacht America, built by Steers of New- York, 204 tons bur,,
after winning the " cup of all nations" at Cowes, I. of Wight, England, and
out-sailing the British yacht Britannia, Aug., 1851, was sold by Messrs.
Stevens to Ca{)t. Blaquiere for X5,000 !
iTANKEE. The derivation of this word is generally accredited to the Indian
pronunciation of the word English, which they render Ycngccse. — In New-
York it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all the North-
eners; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans. — In a curious book on the
Round Towers of Ireland. j)ublisljed some years ago, the origin of the term
Yankee-Doodle was said to have been tracedtothePersianphra.se Yanki
6/.9/i?Urt/^, or '-Inhabitants of the New World." Layard, in his "Nineveh,"
also mentions Yanghi-dunia as the Persian name of America. — Illits. News.
roCATAN. Intelligence received at New Orleans. Jan. 3, 1851 that a battle
between the whites and Indians in Yucatan resulted in the victory of the
latter, 300 of the whites being killed.
ZINC. The Soc. Indust. Nationale in Paris, granted to M. Leclaire, 1846, a
medal of gold worth 3000 francs, for his substitution of zinc for white lead
in the formation of painter's color, the use of which latter has been attended
with so much danger to health. — Ari Journal. White paint prepared from
zinc i.s much used of late in the U. States, and has hitherto been greatly
approved.
WHERE.
LIVES
LOST,
Wexford rocks, Ire.
13
Lake Ontario,
38
From Bombay,
100
Near Nenwerk, Ger.
100
Off Port Patrick,
.'50
Lake Krie.
300
OffFire Island, N.Y.
many
Charleston to N Y.
24
Near Belfast,
19
Near Limerick,
96
At sea, Hamburgh to N. Y.
11
PAINTING.
PAINTING. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in
Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of
the Nineteenth Century.
{From Bell's Edition of Brcdow's Tables of Universal History.)
1. Florentine School. — Style elevated and 'nukl, seeking rather to be admiretl than
to i)^ease ; sometimes gigantic ; neglects coloring and grace —1§40^ Cimabue : 1720, (liotto ;
1211, Andrea Taffi; 1401), Massolino ; 1402, Massacio ; 1431, Filinpo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea
Verrochio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 144o, Leonardo da Vinci;
14G9, Bartolommeo di San Marco ; 1471, Baldassarre Periizzi ; 1474, Michael Angelo Buon-
arotti ; 1484, Dominico Beccafumi ; 1488, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493, Jacopo Carrucci da Pon-
tormo; 149(5, Del Rosso; 1500, Pt-rino del Vaga ; 1.509, Daniel da Volterra ; 1510, Francesco
Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vasari ; 1.545, Antonio Tempesta ; 1559. Luigi Cardi ; 15()3, Fran-
cesco Vanni ; 1578, Matteo Rosselli ; 159(5, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 161 1,
Pietro Testa; 1GI5, Benvenuto da Garofbli ; 1610, Carlo Dolci ; 1066, Benedetto Lutti ;
109,5, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni ; 1702, Pompeo Battoni.
2. Roman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analyti-
cal study of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most sublime beauty ; coloring and
ehiaro oscuro less perlbct. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio ; 1440, Pietro Perrugino; 1483,
Raifael ; 1488, G. F Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci ; 1529, Taddeo
Zucchero ; 1543, Frederico Zucchero ; 1589, Dominico Feti ; 1.W4, Nicholas PoussiR •
1.598, Giovan' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi ; 1000, Claude Gelee, called Clauvis
of Lorraine; 1002, Cerio/.zi ; 1005, G. B. Salvi, called 11 Sassoferralo ; 1(513, Gaspard E ^
ghet, called Poussin or Guaspre; 1610, Luigi Scaramuccia ; 1017, Francesco Rouianel' '
1023, Giacinto Brandi; UriA, Filippo Lauri ; 1025, Carlo Maratti ; 1034, CiroFerri; 109-i
Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Raffael Mengs.
3. Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of w^ell-chosen subjects of nature, excellent
coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique;
this school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini ; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgi-
one; 1477, Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore) ; 1480, G. A. Regillo; 1485, Sebastiano de}
Piombo; 1510, Jacopo da Ponte ; 15)2, J. Robusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, P.-ioio Fari-
nati; 1522, Andrea Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muziano ; 1.532, Pacjlo Cagliari ; 1.535,
Giusep[)e I'onta; 1.539, Dario Varotari ; 1540, Felice Riccio; 1.540, Jacopo Palma (II Vec-
chio) ; 1544, Jac Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino ; 1500, Maria Tintoretta ; 1501, Leonardo
Corona; 1.580, Tiberio Tine'li; 1590, Aless. Varotari; 1000, Aless. Turchi ; 1035, (^iov. B.
Langetti; 1(542, Andrea Pozzo; 105(3, Franc. Trevisani ; 1059, Sebast. Ricci ; 1000, Ant.
Balestra; 1(572, Rosa Alba Carriera ; 1(57.5. (^iiov. Ant. Pellegrini ; 1082, G. B. Piazzetta ;
1087, Ant. Canale ; 1093, Giov. Bat. Tiepolo ; 1099, Giuseppe Nogari.
4. Lombard and Boloonese Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not liaving
founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these
two Schools are conjoined. Corrcggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and vo-
luptuous (though perhaps somewhat allected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic
harmony in his coloring. Tibaldi and the Caracci introduce a more elevated character of
design, and many of their pujiils unite therewith the tine coloring and the graces of Correg-
gio. 1450, Francesco Franco; 1491), F. Primaticcio; 1494, CoRREoaio Antonio Allegri ;
1495. Polidori Ca'dari ; 1504, Fr Mazzuoli ; 1522, Pellegrino Tiba!di ; 1540, Camillo Fro-
caccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Carravaggio; 15.'55, Lodov. (jaracci ; 1557, Agos-
tino Caracci ; 1500, Aiiniba'e Caracci ; 1500, Bartol. Schidone; 1575, Guido Reni. \;alled
Guulo; 1.570, Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini ; 1578, Francesco Albano; 1580, (iia-
como (>avedone ; 1581, Dom. Zanipieri, called Domenichino ; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco ; 1588,
Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov Lana ; 1000, Mic. Ang. Colonna; 1000,
Grima'di ; 1018, Giorg. And. Sivani ; 1012, SimoneCantarini ; 1024, P. Fran. Mola ; 10-28,
Cignani; 1038, P. F. Caroli ; 1043, Lodov. auaini ; 1048, Ant. Franceschini ; 1054, Guis.
del Sole; 1057, Fer. Galli Babiena ; 100.5, Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1608, Dom. Maria Viani ;
1071, DonatoCreti ; 1074, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1091, G. P. Panini.
(Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having found-
ed general Schools ; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools.
Neapolitan. — The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat af-
fected. Pietro and Tommaso Stofani, d. 1310; Fii del Tesauro, 1320 ; 1500, And. Sabbata-
ni; 1.500, Guis, Cesared'Arpino; lOOO, Aniello Falcone; 10113, Mario Nuzzi ; 1013, Mat-
teo Petri ; 1015. Salvator Rosa; 1031; liUra Giordano; 1(557, Fran. Solimene ; 1001, Nun-
zio Ferajoli; 1079, Sebast. Couca ; J093, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in
design.— 1400, Nich. da Vottri ; 1.527, Cambiasi ; 1544, G. B. Paggi ; 1557. Bern. Castelli ;
1,581, Bernardo Stro/.zi ; 1.59i). Glo. Carlone ; lOlO. Benedetto Castiglione ; 1025, F. M. Bor-
zoni; 1039. G. B. Gauii ; 1044. Greg. Ferrari; 1(5.54. Bart. Gnidobiui ; 1(500, II Molinaret-
to. Spaniards. — The.se painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often
display its brilliant coloring. — 1400, Alunso Berragente ; 1487, Blaise de Prado ; 1519. Mo-
PAINTING.
rales ; 15^18, Luis de Vargas ; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete ; 1550, Pablo de las Rovla:» ;
15ri9, Josef Ribera ; 151)9, Don Diego Velasquez de Siiva; 16U1. Aionso Cano ; J6I0, Hen-
rique de las Marinas; 1013, Barto oine Esteban de Murillo ; 16I7, Franc. Rizzi ; 1G31, Malias
de Torres; 1G40, Pedro de Nunez ; 1640, Juan de Aitaro ; 1651, Juan C. Faico ; 16G3, P. di
Pietri.)
5. German School. — This school having never had a common point of union, htars no
general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists
to the great masters of Italy and of tlie Netheriands. 1;297, Th.'de Matina ; 13.57, Theo. de
Prague; 1357, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Durer; 1492, Lucas MUller; 1498, Hans Holbein ;
1515, Lucas (Jranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz; 15.56, Jolin Van
Aachen; 1564, J. Rottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; J.574. Adam Eizheimer; 1598, Sam. Hof-
mann ; 1600. J. W. Bauer ; 160G. Jo. Sandrart ; 1611 Ch. Loth; 1616, Govaert Flink ; 1618,
P. Van der Faes ; 1619, J. Spiiberg; 1621, Leb. Stopkopt ; 1625, J Lingelback ; 1631, J.
HenRoos; 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher ; 1640, Ab. Mignon; 1647. M. S. Mq-
rian ; J648. Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R Huber ; 1609, Anna Wa-
ser; J685, Ba thasar Denner ; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg ; 1698, J. li. Riedenger; 1709, Brinkmann ;
1712, C. W. E. Dietrich ; 1728, Ratfael Mengs ; 1730, Solomon Gessner.
6. Flemish or Belgic School — This School exce's in coloring and in the faithful imi-
taton of nature, but does not always exhibil sufficient nob'eness of design ; it produces
eminent artists in every style; that to whichT^niers has allixed his name had its l)irth in
this School ; the Academy at Antwerp, the crad e of this Sch:.ol, was founded in 1510, but
there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442. — 1306, Eubert Van Evk ;
1370, John Van Eyk ; 1450, auentin Messis; 1490, Her. V. Orley ; 1499, J. de Mabuse;
1553, Peter Knock ; 1520, Frank F;oris ; 1534, Mar de Vos ; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por-
bus; 1546, B. Spranger ; 1548, C. Van Mander ; 1550. H Steenwvck; 1555, DenysCaivart ;
1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel; 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S.Frank; ];)76, Fr.
Sneyders; 1577, Peter Paul Rubens; 1580, David Teniers; 1.594, James Jordaens ; J.599,
Anthony Van Dyk ; 1602, Phillip de Cliampagne ; 1610, David Teniers; 16l3, J. Van Ar-
tois; I6l8, Gonzales Coques ; 1634, Van der Meulen ; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1668, G. P.
Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort.
7. Dutch School. — This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence
of the ch'aro oscuro; exhibits good co'oring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi-
nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this i-^ch( ol.
1467, Erasmus; 1494, Luke of Leyden ; 1498, Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, An. Moro ; 1504,
Ab. Blo^mart; 1579, Sol.de Brev ; 15(^6, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1596, Leo Branier ; 1600, J.
D. de Hee n; 1600, John Wynants ; IGiiO, A.bert Cuyp ; 1600, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn ;
1608. Gerard Terburg ; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade ; I6l3, Gerard Dow; 1615, (-abriel Met-
zu ; 1620, Philip VVouvermans ; 1624, Nichoas Bergham; 162.5, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludo'ph
Bakhuytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde ; 1635, Jac. Ruysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Fran. Miens;
1636, John Steen ; 1637, Van don Heyden ; 1638, Adrian van der Ve'de ; 1640, Karel du Jar-
din; 1664, John Weenix; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1682, John Van lluysum.
English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Ita'ian
Sch;)ols; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-co'ors. — 1480, Hans Hol-
bein ; 1543 F. Zucchero; I.)72, Inigo -lones ; 1601, P. Giver ; 1609, S. Cooper ; 16J0, W.
Dobson; 1620, Ric. Gibson ; 1619, John Greenhill ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke
Cradock; 1677, James Thomhill ; 1697, W^iiliam Hogarth; I7l4, Rich Wilson; 1723,
Joshua Revnolds ; 1727, Thorn. Gainsborough ; 1733, Savvrey Gilpin ; 1734, P. J. de Louth-
erbourg: 1735, David Alan; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Norlh-
cote; J748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Reinagle; 1751, William Hamilton ; 17.')2, Wm.
Beet'hey ; 1755, Thorn Stothard; 1759, Francis Bourgeo'se ; I76l, John Opie ; 1764, Geo.
Morand ; 1769, Thomas liawrence; 1774, Edward Bird; 1776, John Constable; 178G,
Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Thomas Daniell ; 1785, David Wilkie ; 1780,
R B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty.
8. FRENr-H School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the
different Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics; they are in general
more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the de-
gradat'on and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brtin by V^ien, and become the
most numerous and flourishing school of all. — 1490, Fran. Primaliccio; 1490, Rosso de
Rossi; ln02, J. Cousin ; 1582, Simon Vouet ; 1.594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1600, Caude Lor-
raine ; 160;). Le Vaentin; 16:10, James Blanchard ; 1007, James Petitot ; IGIG, Sebastian
Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius ie Seur; 1619, Charles le Brun ; 1640, Charles de la Fosse;
1644, John Jouvenet; |6")7. Joseph Vivien ; 1607, Nichoas Bertin ; 16f)7. Anth. Rivallv ;
1684, Ant Watteau; 1688. Francis Le Mo ne ; 1692, Noel N. Covpel ; 17!K), Chas. Natoire ;
1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet ; 1716, Viea ; 1729, J. B.Deshays ; 175G, J. L.Da-
vid; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1767, A. L. Girodet.
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD^S PROGRESS, 1850-51.
41
ADDITIONS TO THE BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
(INCLUDING ACCIDENTAL OMISSIONS IN THK FORMER EDITIONS.)
NATION.
Eng.
Eng.
Gr.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger. Fr.
Amer.
Gr.
Gr.
Amer.
Eng.
Span.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
Ger.
Eng.
Scotch.
Hung.
Jew.
Ital.
Eng.
Russ.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Dutch.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Moor.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer,
Eng.
Polish.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Gr.
Fr. Ital.
Eng.
Sp. Eng.
Fr.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Adelaide, Queen Dowager, widow of William IV.
Adrian IV. (N. Breakspeare), the only English pope
iEgineta, Paulus, writer on medicine ....
^ifric, Abp. Canterbury, author of Anglo Saxon works .
Almon, John, political writer and publisher
Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XHI. of France
Armstrong, S. T., book publisher and Lt Governor of Mass. ,
Armenides, philosopher of the Eclectic School
Aspasia, celebrated courtesan— cause of the Pelop. war temp.
Audubon, John James, traveller ami naturalist (b. at New-Orleans)
Baffin, Wm., navigator— explorer of Baffin's Bay ,
Balboa, Vasco Nunez D., one of the first navigators to the W. Indies
Barron, James, Cominod. U. S. Navy ....
Bartram, William, horticulturist . . . . '
Baskerville, John, celebrated printer, publisher, and type-founder
Bastide, .John F. de, voluminous writer and editor
Bates, William, non-conformist divine, and theol. writer .
Beck, John B., writer on medicine, botany, &c. . . . '
Beckmann, John A., author of History of Inventions .
Bell, Andrew, D.D., founder of national schools
Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe
Bem, Gen., military commander in the war with Austria
Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest modern travellers .
Bentivoglio, Guido. cardinal, and historian
Benger, Eliz. Ogilvie, biog. of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Scots, <fec.
Behring, or Beering,Vitus, captain in Russian navy who gave name to
the " Straits ".......
Behn, Aphra, female dramatist, temps. Charles II ». . * .
Berrington, Joseph, Author of History of Middle Ages ,
Bickersteth, (Rev. E.,) author of popular reliffious works .
Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatic writer of 18th century
Bilderdyk, George, poet ......
Bingham, George, author of Ecclesiastical History— Christ. Antiq.
Blainville, M. de, chemist and naturalist ....
Blanchard, Laman, essayist and magazine writer
Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar, ed. of Museum Criticum
Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Grenada . . . about
Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library
Bonaparte, N. F. C. J., duke of Reichstadt— only son of Napoleon
Boleyn, Anne, second queen of Henry VIII. .
Bos, Lambert, Greek scholar, author of works on Greek Classics
Bowles, Rev, W. L,, poet .,..,.
Boyer, Abel (Fr, refugee in England), author of Fr. Dictionary
Brigham, Amariah, MI)., medfcal writer and philanthropist
Brand, J., Author of •' Popular Antiquities"
Brinvilliers, Marchioness, notorious poisoner
Brunton, Mary, novelist— " Discipline." ifec.
Bryan, Michael, author of Diet, of Painters
Buckingham, John Sheffield, duke of^ military comm'r, poet
Burgundy, Charles the Bold, duke of . .
Buckminster, J. S., author of" Sermons," <fec.
Buxton, T. Fowell, leading opponent of the slave trade
Byihner, Victorinus, author of Lyra Prophetica
Cadmus, founder of Thebes, introducer of letters .
Cade, Jack, noted for his rebellion against Henry VI. .
Calhoun, John C, senator of U. S. forS. Carolina— ex-Sec. of State, &c.
Calamy, Ed., numerous theological works
Cambridge, duke of, youngest son of George III.
Capo D'Istria, John, Count of, diplomatist— assassma<«rf
Catharine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France .
Catharine Parr, 6th queen of Henry VIIL
Catharine of Arragon, 1st queen of Henry VIIl.
Caulaincourt, A, A. L., Duke of Vicenza
BORN. DIED.
1850
1159
630
1005
1738 1805
1604 1666
1784 1850
5th c. B c.
Pericles, b c. 450
1780 1851
1584
1517
1769 1851
1823
1706 1775
1724
1625 1699
1794 1851
1739 1811
1753 1832
1767 1830
1851
1173
1579 1641
1827
1741
1689
1827
1850
1760
1668
1778
1803
1788
1544
1811
1507
1670
1761
1664
1798
1743
1723
1850
1844
1816
1495
1612
1832
1536
1717
1850
1729
1849
1806
1676
1778 1818
1757 1821
1649 1720
f. 1470
1784 1812
1787 1845
1664
f. B. c. 1700
f. 1450
1782 1850
1732
1774 1850
1780 1831
1503 1589
15 1548
1483 1536
1773 \m
42
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
NATION.
Ital.
Encr.
Ital.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Rom.
Mex.
Eng.
Fr.
Gr.
En£f.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
En?.
Amer.
Fr.
Ital.
Eng.
Eng.
Scotch.
Eng.
Rom.
Pers.
Fren.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
Amer.
Swiss.
Eng.
Fr.~
Dulch.
Ital.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Scotch.
Eng.
Enff.
Swisfj.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Rom.
Ital.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Cavallo Tiberiup, author ol works on nat. phil. in EnslRnrl . . 1749
Cave. Dr. William, auihor oC-* Primitive Chri.-tiani'y " . 1637
Cellini, Benvenu o, Florentine artist, author of Autobiography . 15U0
Chaste! eux. F. .1 , marquis, author of '-Travels in America"
Cogswell, Hev. Wm., D D , theological and statistical writer . 1788
Chillingworth, Wm , theologian — aUthor of Religion of Protestants
Claudianus, Claudius, poet, temp Emperor Thebdosius, Arcadius, <fec.
Clavigero, F. S, author of the History of Mexico
Clemens, or Clement, of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church f.
Clinton, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of British army in Amer. Revol.
Clovis, first Christian king of France
Codrus, 17th and last king of Athens .... i
Collier, Jeremiah, non-juring divine, author of Ecc'l History . 1650
Colton, Walter. Rev., author of several books of travel
Commines, Philip de, historian, chronicler, statesman, and courtier 1445
Coiid()rcet. .John. A. N. C, marquis of, mathematician and philosopher 1743
Congreve, Sir Wm., inventor of Congreve rockets, &c. . 1772
Cooper, J. Feniinore, iiovelisij traveller and histoiian
Corday, Charlotte, the executioner of the sanguinary Marat
Cosmo I,, grand duke of Tuscany, promoter of the arts, <tc. . 1519
Coverdale.''!Vliles,one of ihe earlie-^t Enslish reformers— trans, of the Bible 1509
Cowper, Wm., earl, lord hish chancellor
Crichton, .lames, an accomplished gentleman — the" admirable Crichton" 1560
Crossus, 5th and last king of Lydia, famed for his riches, . . f.
Curtis, William, botanisl, author of" Flora Londinensis"
Curtius Marcus, who devoted himself for his country
Cyrus ihe Great, king of Persia, conqueror of Lydia, Assyria, &c.
Daguerre, perfecter of the c?a^?^e/Teo////;e procf^ss . . 1789
Dale, Richard, nival commander, associate of Paul Jones, <kc. . 1756
Damon. Pythagorean f)hilos()pher, friend ol Pythias — in Sicily
Daniel, S unuel, poet-laureate on the death of Spenser, and historian 1562
DIKD.
1809
1713
1570
1738
1850
1644
Danton, George .fames, sanguinary revolutionist {guiiloimed) 1759
Daru. P. a. n. B., statesman, poet and historian . . . 1767
Davenant, Sir Wm., poet-laureate after Ben Jonson . . 1606
Davis, Matthew L., politician, biographer o( Burr . . 1766
Davoust, L. N., duke of Auerstadt. marshal of France . . 1770
Dearborn, H. A. S , Gen , nailitary coinmander in war of 1812, &c., 1783
Delolme, J. L., authctr of work on English Constitution . . 1745
Denham, Sir John, poet ..... 1615
Denon, D. V., baron de, author of the great work on Egypt . 1747
Dewitt, John, an enlighteneil statesman . . . 1625
Diodati, John, translator of the Bible into Italian . . . 1589
Dodsley. Robert, bookseller, editor of Old Plays, and author . 1703
Donne, John, a divine and poet .... 1573
Douce. Francis, antiquarian— "Shakspeare and his Times," &c. .
Douglas. David B , officer in the war of 1812, engineer, &c. . 1793
Drake, Nathan, essayist—-' Mornines in Spring," &c. . . 1766
Drayton, Michael, poet — " Polyolbion," <fec. . . . . 1563
Drew, Samuel — " Essay on the Soul," &c. . . . 1765
Drummond Wm., poet — friend of Ben Jonson . . . 1585
Drummond, Sir William, antiquai-y — " Origines," &c.
Dugdale, Sir Wm , antiquary, - M()nastix)n," <kc. . . 1605
Dumont, Siephen. writer on legislation, <fec. . . . 1750
Dwi<rht, Rev, S. E , biosrrapher of Edwards. &c. .
Eaton, Wm., c(»nsul at Tunis— distinguished in war with Tripoli 1764
Eichhorn, John Geo , biblical critic, author of History of Literature 17.52
Ellenboroueh, lord, chief justice of England . . . 1748
Elliott, Eben, the Corn law Rhymer .... 1782
E^chenbers, J. J —'• Manual of Classical Literature" . . 1743
Estaing. Chas. Hen., count de, naval comm in Amer. war
Exmoiith, Viscount, naval comm.m ler — at Algiers, &c. . 1757
Fabius Picf(U-, the first Roman historian — works not extant . f.
Ficciolati, James, aiuhor of Latin Dictionary . . 1682
Fairfax, Edward, poet — translator of Tasso,
Falkland, visccmnt, statesman and soldier in the civil war . 1610
Feliham. Owen, author of" Resolves, Moral," &c., about .
Fichie, John Gotlieb, philosopher and metaphysici;m . 1762
Fitch, John, one of the first experimenters in steam-boats , . 1743
Flamstead, John, astronomer .... 1646
Fletcher, Giles, poet ...... 1588
Fletcher, Phineas, brother of foregoing, poet . . 1582
Foix, Gaston de, nephew of Louis XIL, warrior . . 1489
189
1795
511
B. c. 1069
1726
1851
iri09
1794
1828
1851
1793
1574
1580
1723
1583
B. c. 557
1799
B. c. 362
B. c. 529
1851
1826
1619
1794
1829
1668
1850
18-23
1851
1806
1668
1825
1672
1649
1764
1631
1834
1849
1836
1631
1833
1649
1828
1686
1829
1850
1811
1827
1818
1850
1820
1793
18.33
B. C. 225
1760
1632
1643
1678
1814
1798
1719
1623
16.50
1512
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1^50-51.
43
NATION.
Ital.
luil.
Amer.
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
En?.
Scotch.
A mcr.
Scotch.
Fr.
Eng.
Eiig.
Irish.
Garth.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Fr.
Fr.
Mex.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Gr.
Eng.
Atrier.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Rom.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Ensr.
Scotch.
Scotch.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Gr.
Gr.
Span.
Eng.
Eng.
Ens.
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Swe.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
En<r.
Eng.
Ger.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Scotch,
18.50
1836
f. 17.58
1827
179.3
1827
1842
1707
18:34
16,56
1720
B. c. 247 B. c. 183
1778
1777
1764
1750
17.58
1790
1759
1,574
1646
1724
1780
1591
1741
1164
1695
1851
1648
1750
1833
f. about 150 B.C.
1661
1709
1681
1101
1625
1581
1744
NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED.
Foscolo, Uiro, writer of plays and es?!ays, &c, . . . 1776 1827
Francis. S lint, founder of ihe Franci>xan Friars . . . 1182 1226
Fuller, S. Margaret, marchit»ne-^s d'O^JSoIi, essayist and critic . 1810 1850
Fueger, the nan)e of a noble and very wealthy iamily at Augsburgh 15(h and 16th c.
Gay-I.ussac, N. F., chemist, ....
Gall, Sir Wm., antiquary—'' Pompeiana,'' and '■ Rome '*
Goguft, Anih. Y., advocate, au'hor of "Origin of Laws," &c.
Good, .John Mason, medical writer — " Book of Nature," &c.
Gordon, lord George, author of the Anti-popery liiots m 1780
Gore, Christopher. Gov. of Mass., senator of U S.
Grahame, James, historian of the United States
Grammont, Philibert. count of, famous wit at court of Chas. II,
Grenville, Rt. flon. W- Wyndham, lord, prime minister
Hall, .Joseph, bishop of Noiwich, the Chri.-Jtian Seneca .
Hamilton, Anih., count, |)oet, courtier, and man of letters .
Hannibal, the Carthaginian general — invader of Italy
Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman, patron of Pope
Harris, .James, philologist, author of" Hermes," &c. .
Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor for Queen Elizabeth
Heinecius, .John G., jurist, civilian, prof, of philosophy
Heloise. or Eloise, celebrated for beauty and wit, and love for Abelard
Herbelot, Bartholomew d'. learned orientalist
Herrera, ex president of Mexico ....
Herbert, Edward, lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and historian
Hill, Aaron, poet ......
Hill, Kev. Rowland, a popular and eccentric preacher
Hipparrhus, the most eminent of ancient astronomers
Hollis, Thos., benefactor of Harvard College, U. S. A.
Holyoke, Edw. A., physician and man of s'cience— lived 101 years
Home, Sir Everard, author of Comparative Anatomy, «fec. .
H()()kms, Stephen, statesman and jurist— signer of Dec. of Indep.
Hopkinson, Francis, political writer — signer of Dec. of Indep. .
Hortensius, Quintus, eloquent orator ami writer .
Hoste, Paul, mathematician — author of Naval Evolutions
Howe, .John, non-conformist divine and theol. writer
Howe, Sir Wm., British commander-in-chief in America
Howell, .las., author of Familiar Letters . ,
Hunter, Wm., anatomist .....
Hunter, .John, anatomist ....
Hunter, W. L., diplomatist anrl senator
Huntingdon, Henry of, historian
Iluntingdon, Selina, countess of, founder of chapels, schools, &c.
Hurd, Richard, bishop ol Litchfield— philologist and miscel. writer
Hutchinson, Anne, religious enthusiast— banished from N. E. .
Hutton, Wm., an insrenious self-educated writer
Hypatia, a female philosopher of great attainments, in Alexandria
lirnatius, St., eminent father of the Church, and martyr .
Irenceus, St , bishop of Lyons, Christian father and martyr
Irene, empress of Constantinople— famous for beauty, talent and crime
Isabella of Castile, wife of Ferdinand of Arrason— patron of Columbus
lamblicus, a philosopher— author of Life of Pythagoras
.Jervis, .John, earl St. Vincent, admiral — victor otf Cape St. Vincent
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, warrior, «fec.
John of Salisbury, bp of Chartres, latin poet— promoter of literature
.Johnson, Sir Wm.. British commander in N. America
Johnson, Richard M., Col. distinsuished in war of 1812, V. Pres. U. S. 1780 1850
Joinville, John Sieurde, statesman and historian . . . 1228 1318
Jones, Jacob, commodore in U. S N.— victor in the " Wasp," &c. 1768 1850
Judson, Rev. Adoniram, DD , missionary in Burma . . 1788 1850
JuiTurtha, king oiNumidia— conquered and put to death . b. c. 106
Justinian I., the Great, emperor (»f the East— fjimed for his Code . 483 565
Kalm, Peter, naturalist— author of travels in Atiierica . 1715 1779
Kellermmn, Francis C, duke of Valmy, marshal of France . 1735 1820
Kent. Edward, duke of, 4th son of Geo. III., father of Q. Victoria 1767 1820
Keppel, Ausrustus, viscount, admiral .... 1786
Kirby, Rev.' W., entomologist .... 1751 18r)0
Knowles, Richard, author of Hist, of the Turks, &c. . . 1610
Korner, Thetxlore, poet and dramatist . . . 1788 1813
Linnes, John, duke of Montebello and marshal of France . . 1769 1809
Larcher, P. H., classical philologist and translator . . 1726 1811
Latham, John, M.D.,ornitholofrist and antiquarian . . 1740 1837
Law, John, the originator of the " Mississippi Bubble" . 1681 1729
1720
1728
17.56
1707
1738
1652
1630
1.595
1718
1728
1774
1774
1829
18.32
1785
1791
3. 49
1700
1705
1814
1666
1783
1793
1849
f. 1150 ^
1707 179r
1720 1808
1643
1723 1815
415
f. 68
202
803
1451 1504
f. 300
1734 1823
13— 1399
f. 12th c.
1774
1780
12-28
1768
1788
B. C.
4a3
44
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Lee, Nathaniel, dramatic poet
Fr. L'EncIos, Anne or Ninon de, a noted voluptuary
Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, poet and novelist— born at New- York .
Ire. Leslie, Charles, theological writer .
Ger. Lessing. Gotthold Bphraim, miscellaneous writer
Eng. L'Estrange. Sir Robert, polit. and controversial writer .
Scotch. Leyden, John, poet and oriental scholar
Leyden, John of,
Eng. Lillo, George, dramatist — " Geo, Barnwell," &c.
Eng. Lilly, Wm., astrologer ....
Scotch. Lindsay, Sir David, poet ....
Amer. Livingston, Brockholst. jurist ....
Amer. Livingston, Robt. R., chancellor of the State of N. Y. and diplomatist
Fr. Louis Philippe I., king of the French
Span. Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits . .
Eng. McAdam, John Loudon — Co\ossu3 of Roads
Amer. McDuffie, Geo., ex-Gov. of S. C, senator of U. S., <fec.
Eng. Macau ley, Catharine, historian
Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist
Rom. Macrobius, A A. T., miscellaneous writer
Eng. Madan, Martin, translator of Juvenal, <fec.
Irish. Magee, Wm., archh. of Dublin — theological writer
Fr. MaFebranche, Nicholas, priest and philos.tphical writer
Fr. Malesherbes, C. W., statesman and author
Eng. Mandeville, Sir John, traveller ....
Egypt. Manetho. historian ....
Rom. Manlius, Titus Torquatus, warrior and consul
Rom. Manlius, Marcus, saved capitol from Gauls
Scotch. Mansfield, Wm. Murray, earl of, chief justice.
Fr. Marceau, F. S. D., general under Napoleon
Rom. Marcellus, M. Claudius, general against Hannibal
Ital. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England
Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany
En^. Marlowe, Chri.stopher, poet and dramatist
Irish. Martin, Mrs. Bell, novelist — died at New-York
Eng. Marvel, Andrew, poet and political writer
Scotch. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots — murdered by Queen Elizabeth
Eng. Maskelyne, Nevil, matheiuatician and astron.
Amer. Mather, Increase, D.D., theol. and historian .
Eng. Maurice, Thomas, oriental scholar and historian .
Maximus Tyrius, philosopher of second century
Ital. Medici, Cosmo de, merchant and statesman
Scotch. Melville, Henry Dundas, viscount— statesman
Jew. Mendelssohn, Moses — the Socrates of the Jews
Port. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand — lying traveller
Amer. Mercer, Hugh, brig'r general in Revolutionary army
Ger. Mesmer, Fred A., discoverer of animal magnetism
Fr. Michaux, Andre, traveller and botanist— N. A. Sylva
Amer. Miller, James, gen. Milit. commander in war of 1812 .
Eng. Miller, Philip, gardener and botanist
Eng. Miller, Joseph, witty actor— the Father of Jests
Amer. Miller, Samuel, D.D., historian of" I8th Century" and theologian
Amer. Miller, Wm., founder of the " Millerites," " End of the World" sect
Eng. Milner, .John, Catholic divine and theological writer
Minucius-Felix, Marcus, rhetorician
Fr. Mirabaud, J. B. de, philosopher and translator
Eng. Monmouth, James, Duke of, natural son of Charles XL
Eng. Montagu, Elizabeth, essayist and founder of the Blue Stockings
Fr. Montespan, Mad. de, mistress of Louis XIV.
Mex. Montezuma, emperor of Mexico— conquered by Cortes .
Fr, Montfaucon, antiquary and critic
Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester — founder of the H. of Commons
Fr. Montgolfier, J. E., inventer of air balloons
Scotch. Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, royalist general
Eng. More, Henry, theological and philosophical writer
Welsh. Morean, William, niathemaiician
Ger. Munchausen, J. C. P.— proverbial for "stories"
Assy. Nabonassar, 1st king of the Chaldeans . . ,
Assy. Nabopolas.sar, kin^ of Babylon
Irish. Napier, W. J., lord, naval commander
Eng. Nash, Richard— commonly called Beau Nash
Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople— founder of Nestorians
BORN.
DIED.
1692
1616
1705
1720
18(>i
1732
1729
1781
•1616
1704
1775
1821
1693
1738
1602
1681
1490
1557
1757
1823
st 1746
1813
1850
1491
1556
1756
1836
1851
1730
1791
1690
1787
420
1726
1765
1831
1638
1715
1721
1794
1372
f. B. C
304
f. B. C
340
B. c. 383
1705
1783
1769
1796
E
.0. 209
1482
1717
1780
1.593
1850
1620
1678
1542
1587
1732
1811
1639
1723
1753
1824
. 1389
1464
1740
1811
. 1729
f.
1550
1777
1734
1815
1746
1802
1775
1851
1691
1684
1738
1759
1850
t 1781
1849
1752
1826
f. 3dc.
f.
1770
1649
1685
. 1720
1800
1520
1655
1741
ns
1265
1745
1799
16—
1645
1614
1687
1833
1797
f. B. c.
747
f. B. C.
626
. 1787
1834
1674
1761
439
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
45
NATION.
Gr.
Gr.
Eng.
Amer.
Ger.
Eng.
Irish.
Rom.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Irish.
Sar
Irish.
Fr.
Scotch.
Egypt.
Eng.
Span.
Ger.
Irish.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Span.
Eng.
Jew.
Ital.
Swiss.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Am'er.
Fr.
Polish.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Rom.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng. Jew.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Nicephorus, Calistus, ecclesiastical historian
Nicephorus, Gregorius, Byzantine historian
Nichols, John, antiquary and miscellaneous writer
Noah, Mordecai M., ex-consul to Morocco, editor and politician
Noheden, G. H., grammarian and misc. writer
North Fred., lord, premier during Amer. war
Nugent, lord, author of Life of Hampden, &c.
Numa Pompilius, 2d king of Rome . .
Oglethorpe. J. E., general— founder of Georgia .
Oldcastle, Sir J., lord Cob ham
Olin, Stephen, D. D., Pres. Weeleyan Sem., author of Travels in the
East, &c., ......
O'Keefe, J., dramatist, . .'.'.*
Omar, 3d calioh of the Saracens— founder of the Mosque
O'Meara, surgeon and biographer of Napoleon
Orleans, L. J. P , duke of—" Esalite "—guillotined
O.ssian, ancient Gaelic bard— supposed to have lived in the
Osymandyas, king of Egypt— about
Overbury, Sir T., poet, &c.— poisoned in the Tower
Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of "Travels in W. Indies"
Panzer, G. W. F.. bibliographer
Parnell, T., poet and divine
Parr, Thomas— lived 152 years . . ' . '
Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . * .
Patrick, Simon, learned prelate and theolosical writer
Paul, St. Vincent de, missionary ecclesiastic
Pearson, John, bishop of Chester— writer on the Creed, &c.
Peele, George, dramatist and poet ....
Penn, Wm., admiral— father of the founder of Pennsylvania
Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the admiralty, author of" Diary," &c,
Perceval, Spencer, prime minister— assassinated .
Peters, Hugh, eccentric preacher and Roundhead— executed
Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess playing
Phillip II , king— married Mary Queen of England— sent the Armada
Philipps, Ambrose, poet and dramatist.
PhiloJudseus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria ' .
Piazzi, astronomer •..,..
Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer
Picton, Sir T., general— killed at Waterloo . . ' .
Piozzi, Hester L., miscel. writer— friend of Dr. Johnson
Pocock, Dr. E., learned critic and commentator .
Pocock, R., learned prelate and traveller
Poinsett, Joel R., statesmen, diplomatist, and author
Polycarp, St., Christian father and martyr
Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV.
Poniatowski, Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland .
Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, "political writer
Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty
Pritchard, J. C, ethnologist—" Natural History of Man,"
Prynne, Wm., learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary
Psalmanazar, Geo., literary impostor .
Purchas, Samuel, divine— editor of Voyages and Pilgrimages
Puttenham, Geo., poet and critic
Pye, H. J., poet-laureate . . * . . '
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus— one of the greatest warriors of antiquitv
Quarles, Francis, poet— author of" Emblems," &c.
Quin, James, eminent actor ....
Rabelais, Fran., wit and satirist
Raffles, Sir T. Stamford, author of Historv of Java
Raikes R., printer— founder of Sunday schools
Rapin de Thoyras, Paul, author of History of England .
Reggie, C. N. Oudinot, due de, marshal of France
Regulus, M. A., patriotic general and consul .
Rennell, Major J., geographer and topographer
Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener and architect .
Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance
Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer
Richard I., Coeur de Lion, king
Richard III. king— killed at Bosworth .
Richardson, James, traveller in Africa, <fec.
Ridley, Nicholas, prelate and protestant martyr
Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and editor of poets
BORN. DIED,
14th c.
14th c.
1744 1828
1851
1770 1826
1733 1792
1850
f. B c 714
1698 1785
1417
1851
1833
643
1836
1793
1748
1778
1747
1500
1581
1729
1679
1483
1746
1626
1576
1612
1621
1762
1599
1726
1556
f. A.
1746
1655
1739
1604
1704
1778
1720
1732
1759
1723
1609
1679
1677
1745
1592
1693
1483
1781
1735
1661
1767
f. B.
1742
1752
1772
1157
1450
1500
1762
3dc.
J. 0.
1613
1540
1812
1717
1635
18-25
1707
1660
1686
1598
1670
1703
1812
1660
1795
1598
1749
D. 40
1826
1724
1815
1821
1691
1765
1851
169
1764
1798
1837
1791
1849
1669
1763
1628
1600
1813
B. 0. 272
1644
1766
1553
1826
1811
1726
c. 256
1830
1818
1823
1850
1199
1485
1851
1555
1803
46
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Scotch. Rnb Roy, (Robert Macgiegor.) highland Treebooter, about
Fr. Rochambeau, J. B. D , count de, marshal of France
Fr, Roland, M. J. P.. madame, martyr to the Revolution
Eng. Romilly, Sir S, jurist and statesmen
Irish. Roscommon. W. D., Earl of, poet and critic
Scotch. RuddimHn,Thos., critic anil grammarian
Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral
Eng. Rymer. Thomas, antiquarian and historian (Foedera) .
Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, divine — impeached for sedition
Eng. Sackville,T., Earl of Dorset, poet, .
Eng. Sackville, Ch., earl of Dorset, wit and poet
Eng. Sidler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian .
Jewish. Sadoc. Rabbi, founder of the sect o( Sadducees
Fr. Saint Pierre, Bernardin de — '' Paul and Virginia," " Stud, of Nat." <fcc.
Eng. Sale, Georse, historian and translator of the Koran
Phcen. Sanchoniatho, philosopher and historian
Eng. Savage, Richard, poet ....
Fr. Savary, N., traveller and Oriental scholar
Ital. Sivonarola, Jerome, monk — famed for zeal and eloquence
Dan. Sixo Grammaiicus, historian
Iial. Scala, statesmen and historian of Florence
Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian
Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet ami satirist .
Ger. Schlegel, Fred , Clitic and historian
Ger. Schwab, Gustav.. poet, ....
Ger. Secundus, John, Latin poet
Eng. Sedley. Sir C, poet ....
Eng. Selden, John, aniiquary and historian
Scotch. Selkirk. John, mariner— the original of" Robinson Crusoe
Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer again>:t Calvin
Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess and miscellaneous writer
Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate
Eng. Shirley, James, dramatic wi-iter.
Airier. Short, Wm., charge d'affaires to France, Holland and Spain
Rom. Silius Iialicus, Caiu--, Ronian poet .
S:irn. Simon Mngus, religious impostor
Gr. Simonides, ancient poet ....
Eng. Skelton, John, poet-laureate to Henry VIII.
Gr. S;)crates, ecclesiastical historian
Span. Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico, <fec.
Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and polii. writer — " Coll. of Tracts'
Eng. Somerville, Wm.. poet,
Fr. S >rbonne, R. de, divine, founder of the college at Paris
Fr. Soulf, one o/ Napoleon's marshals, ex-statesman, &c.
Eng. Southern, T., dramatic writer and poet
Gr. Sozomen. Hermias, ecclesiastical historian
Eng. Speed, John, chronologist, historian and antiquary
Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary
Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., remarkable atheist .
Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bp. of Worcester and theological writer
Eng. Stow, John, antiquary and historian
Eng. Strype, John, divine, biographer and historian
Amer. Stuart, Moses, professor,lheologian, and philologist
Eng. Stukely, Wm.. divine and antiquary
Fng. Suckling, Sir J., poet and dramatic writer
Eng. Sylvester, Joshua, poet ....
Eng. Taylor, John— called the "Water Poet,"
Eng. Tenyson, Dr. T., ab'p of Canterbury, polemical writer
Gr. Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian
Eng. Thoresby. Ralph, biographer and antiquary
Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet, and writer in the " Spectator" .
Eng. Tindal, Matthew, D D., polemical divine
Ital. Tiraboschi. G., historian ....
Irish. Tone, Theobold Wolle, general in the Irish Rebellion
Jew. Tudela, Benjamin de, rabbi and traveller
Eng. Tusser, Thomas, old English writer and poet
Eng. Tyndale. Wm., reformer, and first translator of the Bible into English
Eng. Tytler, P. F., historian
Eng. Tyrwhitt, T., critic and antiquary
Fr. Valliere, the duchess de la, mistress of Louis XIV.
Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John, dramatist, ....
Swiss. Vattel, E. de, jurist and metapnyeical writer (" Law of Nations ")
BORN.
DIED.
1733
1725
1807
1754
1793
1757
1818
16G3
J 684
1674
1757
1607
1679
1713
1672
1724
1.536
1608
1637
1706
1507
1587
f. B. c.
220
1737
1814
1736
f B. c.
760
1697
1743
1788
1452
1498
1208
1430
1497
1.540
1609
1610
1660
1772
1829
1792
1850
1511
1536
1639
1701
1.5R4
1654
1680
1.5U9
1553
1744
1819
1640
1692
1504
1666
1759
1850
B.C. 1
K. D. 74
66
f. B. c.
450
1529
f. 5th
c.
1610
1686
1650
1716
1692
1743
1201
1274
1769
1851
1662
1746
450
15.55
1629
1561
1643
1633
1677
1635
1699
1525
1605
1737
1780
1851
1687
1765
1613
1641
1563
1618
15S0
1654
1636
1715
386
457
16.58
1725
1686
1740
1657
1733
1731
1794
1763
1798
f. 12th c.
1580
1500
1536
1790
1849
1730
1786
1726
1714
1767
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESSj 1850-51.
47
NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION.
Span. Vega, T/>pez de, (Irnmaiic pi>et
l;al. Virgil, Polydore, priest ami historian
Fr. Voiin re, v., poet and miscellaneous writer
IJrit. Vortigern, warrior .....
Ger. Vo.ss, . I. G, historical writer and chronologist
Ger. Voss. Isiiiac, critic nnd philologist ....
Eng. Warwick. Iv. Neville, enrl of, ireneral and statesman — "King Maker
Eng. VVaterland, Dr. D.. divine, and polemicMl writer
Eng. Wedgewood. . I., scientific rnanulaciurer of pottery
Eng. Whi'eliead, Win., jioet-huireate
Eng. Whiiclocke, HNlsiroilo, liiwyer ;ind statesman
Eng. Wliitfriff archb'p, divine, and writer against the Puritans .
Eng. Wither, Georsic, poet .....
Eng. Wo(ni, Anthony h, iintiquary and biographer
En2". Woiion. Sir H , statesman and poet ....
Eng. Zouch, T., D.D., biographer ....
BORN.
DIED.
1562
16c5
1555
1598
1648
484
1577
1649
1618
1689
.„
1471
1683
1740
17:^1
1795
1715
1785
1605
1676
1530
1604
1590
1667
1632
1695
1568
1639
1737
1816
PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, &c.
NATION.
Scotch.
Irish.
Ilal.
Ger.
Ital.
Itai.
Enjj.
Eng.
Dutch.
Ital.
Ital.
Kal.
Dutch.
Ger.
Eng.
Ital.
Fr.
Dutch.
Duich.
Ital.
Dutch.
Ital.
Ital.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Pruss.
Ger.
Ital.
Eng.
Span.
Dutch.
Ger.
Scotch.
Eng.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
(Additions to list on page 688.)
NAME AND PROFESSION
Allen, Sir William
Barker, Robert, inventor of panoramas
Bartolozzi, Francesco
Bauer, Ferdinand
Bellini. Giov., founder of the Ven'n School
Bernini, Giovaimi, L. .
Bewick, .John, publisher of various works
with woodcuts
Bone, Henry
Brill, Paul ....
Brunelleschi, Philip, '' Pitti Palace" at Flor.
Cellini, Benvenuio, Florentine artist— au-
thor of Autobiography
Cignani, Carlo
Cort, Cornelius
Cranach, Eucas,
Gibbons, Grinlin?, famed for carving in oak
Guilio, Romano, (see .Julio) .
Greuze. .Jean Baptiste .
Metzu, Gabriel
Mieris, Francis
IMorghen, Raphael . ...
Neefs, Peter, ....
Pannini, Giov. Paolo
Pinmbo, Sebastiano del .
Richardson, .Jonathan, writer on art and
Roubilliac, E. F. . . .
Rousseau, .1.1 mes
S'-hadovv, .J. G.
SchefTer, Ary,— living
Schiilone, Bartolomeo
Shee, Sir M. A., pres't Royal Academy
Spagnoletto, Guiseppe Ribera la,
Seen, .Jan ....
Sunder, Lucas, (see Cranach)
Thom. .Tas — 1'am O'Shanter, «fec.
Thornhill, Sir .James
Turner, .1. W. M. .
Van der Ncer, Arnold
Van Huysum
Watteau, Antoine
Westall, Uichard .
Wyatt, R. J. ....
.SSION.
BORN.
DIED.
Painter
1781
1850
Pninler
1740
1806
Engraver
1730
1813
Bdfariical painter
1826
Painter
. 1462
1512
Pai7i.'r, Sculp'r 6f Arch'
1598
1680
Wood engraver
1795
Knainel painter
1755
18:34
La.ndseape painter .
1556
1626
Architect
1377
1476
1500
1570
Painter
16-28
1719
Engraver
1536
1578
Engraver .
1470
1.553
Sculptor
1721
Painter
1726
1805
Familiar life painter
1615
1669
U 4.
1G35
1681
Engraver .
1758
18:33
Arch' I painter .
1570
1651
" "
1691
1764
Painter
1485
1.547
Painter
1665
1745
Sculptor
1762
Painter
ia30
1693
Sculptor
1764
1850
Painter
Painter
1560
1616
Painter
1795
1850
Painter
1589
1656
Painter
1636
1689
Engraver
Sculptor
18.50
Historical painter
1676
1732
Painter
1851
Landscape painter .
1619
1683
Emit painter .
1682
1749
Paijiter
1684
1721
Historical painter
1781
1836
Sculptor
1795
1850
48
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51.
MUSICIANS,
(7n addition to those mentioned in the Biographical Index.)
NATION.
Ger.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Ger.
Ital. f
Ital. ,
Ger.
Fr.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Eng.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Ger,
Ital.
Ital.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFBS
Bach, John Sebastian
Bishop, Henry Rowley— living
Boielaieu, Francois Adrien
Calcott, J. W., musical doctor, author of
" Musical Grammar," and
Corelli, Arcangelo .
Gemimani, Francesco .
Giardini. Felice
Gluck, Christopher
Jomelli, Nicolai
Lully, Giovanni Battisla
Mendelssohn, Felix Bartholdy
Mehul, Etienne Henri .
Paer, Ferdinand
Paesiello, or Paisiello, Giovanni
Palestrina, Giovanni Perluigi da
Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista Jesi da
Pen, Jacopo, (see Rimicini, who did not
compose the first opera— Peri did)
Purcell, Henry
Sacchini, Antonio, Maria Gaspardo
Sapio
Scarlatti, Alessandro
Spentini
Spohr, Louis— still living
Stradelia, Alessandro, about .
Tartini, Giuseppe
Tallis, Thomas
SIGN.
Organist and composer .
Co?nposer .
Composer
Composer .
Violinist and co7nposer
BORN. DIED.
, 1685 1750
1782
, 1775 1834
Composer .
Violinist and composer
Composer
Tenor vocalist
Composer
Violinist and composer
Vocalist "
Violinist
Composer .
1766
1663
J680
h716
1712
1714
1634
1809
1763
1771
1741
1.524
1707
1550
1658
1734
1792
1659 '
1780
1783
1645
1692
1821
1713
1762
1795
1787
1744
1687
1848
1817
1839
1816
1594
1737 or '9
1625
1695
1786
1851
1725
1851
1670
1770
ABBEEVIATIONS.
Amer.
Ara.
Assy,
Bab.
Bav.
Car.
D;m.
Eng.
Fr.
Ger.
American,
Arabian.
Assyrian.
Babylonian.
Bavarian.
Carthaginian.
Danish^
English.
French.
German.
Gr.
Greek.
Pruss.
Heb.
Hebrew.
Rom.
Hind.
Hindoo.
Russ.
Ital.
Italian.
Sam.
Jew.
Jewish.
Sar.
Mace.
Macedonian.
Span.
Nor.
Norman.
Swe.
Pers.
Persian.
Syr.
Phen.
Phoenician.
U.S. i
Port.
Portuguese,
U.S.
Prussian.
Roman.
Russian.
Samaritan.
Sardinian.
Spanish.
Swedish.
_^ , Syrian.
U. S. A. ? United States of
\ America.
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